A Survey of the Tanach

for the Practical Messianic

© 2008, 2012 John Kimball McKee

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originally produced by TNN Press 2012 in Kissimmee, Florida

Unless otherwise noted, Scripture quotations are from the New American Standard, Updated Edition (NASU), © 1995, The Lockman Foundation.

Front cover image is of a desert caravan of camels, ©Istockphoto.com

Back cover image is an Assyrian relief of the Siege of Lachish

taken July 2008 by J.K. McKee at the British Museum, London

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

TORAH (PENTATEUCH)

BOOK OF GENESIS

BOOK OF EXODUS

BOOK OF LEVITICUS

BOOK OF NUMBERS

BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY

NEVI'IM (PROPHETS)

BOOK OF JOSHUA

BOOK OF JUDGES

BOOKS OF SAMUEL

BOOKS OF KINGS

BOOK OF ISAIAH

BOOK OF JEREMIAH

BOOK OF EZEKIEL

BOOK OF HOSEA

BOOK OF JOEL

BOOK OF AMOS

BOOK OF OBADIAH

BOOK OF JONAH

BOOK OF MICAH

BOOK OF NAHUM

BOOK OF HABAKKUK

BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH

BOOK OF HAGGAI

BOOK OF ZECHARIAH

BOOK OF MALACHI

KETUVIM (WRITINGS)

BOOK OF PSALMS

BOOK OF PROVERBS

BOOK OF JOB

SONG OF SONGS

BOOK OF RUTH

BOOK OF LAMENTATIONS

BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES

BOOK OF ESTHER

BOOK OF DANIEL

BOOK OF EZRA-NEHEMIAH

BOOKS OF CHRONICLES

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

BIBLIOGRAPHY

An Important Word From the Publisher:

TNN Press is pleased to offer you this eBook version of A Survey of the Tanach for the Practical Messianic. Please be aware that there are some formatting differences between this electronic edition for Amazon Kindle, and the printed edition. It is highly recommended that if you are interested in perusing this publication for research purposes, that you procure a hard copy available from TNN Press.

Footnotes have also been converted to chapter endnotes. These not only include important references to primary sources, but also will point to other books, commentaries, and articles produced by TNN Press, Outreach Israel Ministries, and TNN Online.

Abbreviation Chart and Special Terms

The following is a chart of abbreviations for reference works and special terms that are used in publications by TNN Press. Please familiarize yourself with them as the text may reference a Bible version, i.e., RSV for the Revised Standard Version, or a source such as TWOT for the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, solely by its abbreviation. Detailed listings of these sources are provided in the Bibliography.

Special terms unique to this publication that may be used have been provided in this chart:

ABD: Anchor Bible Dictionary

AMG: Complete Word Study Dictionary: Old Testament, New Testament

ANE: Ancient Near East(ern)

Apostolic Scriptures/Writings: the New Testament

Ara: Aramaic

ATS: ArtScroll Tanach (1996)

b. Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli)

B.C.E.: Before Common Era or B.C.

BDAG: A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Bauer, Danker, Arndt, Gingrich)

BDB: Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon

BECNT: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

BKCNT: Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament

C.E.: Common Era or A.D.

CEV: Contemporary English Version (1995)

CGEDNT: Concise Greek-English Dictionary of New Testament Words (Barclay M. Newman)

CHALOT: Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament

CJB: Complete Jewish Bible (1998)

DRA: Douay-Rheims American Edition

DSS: Dead Sea Scrolls

ECB: Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible

EDB: Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible

eisegesis: “reading meaning into,” or interjecting a preconceived or foreign meaning into a Biblical text

EJ: Encylopaedia Judaica

ESV: English Standard Version (2001)

exegesis: “drawing meaning out of,” or the process of trying to understand what a Biblical text means on its own

EXP: Expositor’s Bible Commentary

Ger: German

GNT: Greek New Testament

Grk: Greek

halachah: lit. “the way to walk,” how the Torah is lived out in an individual's life or faith community

HALOT: Hebrew & Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Koehler and Baumgartner)

HCSB: Holman Christian Standard Bible (2004)

Heb: Hebrew

HNV: Hebrew Names Version of the World English Bible

ICC: International Critical Commentary

IDB: Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible

IDBSup: Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible Supplement

ISBE: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

IVPBBC: IVP Bible Background Commentary (Old & New Testament)

Jastrow: Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Bavli, Talmud Yerushalmi, and Midrashic Literature (Marcus Jastrow)

JBK: New Jerusalem Bible-Koren (2000)

JETS: Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

KJV: King James Version

Lattimore: The New Testament by Richmond Lattimore (1996)

LITV: Literal Translation of the Holy Bible by Jay P. Green (1986)

LS: A Greek-English Lexicon (Liddell & Scott)

LXE: Septuagint with Apocrypha by Sir L.C.L. Brenton (1851)

LXX: Septuagint

m. Mishnah

MT: Masoretic Text

NASB: New American Standard Bible (1977)

NASU: New American Standard Update (1995)

NBCR: New Bible Commentary: Revised

NEB: New English Bible (1970)

Nelson: Nelson’s Expository Dictionary of Old Testament Words

NETS: New English Translation of the Septuagint (2007)

NIB: New Interpreter’s Bible

NIGTC: New International Greek Testament Commentary

NICNT: New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDB: New International Dictionary of the Bible

NIV: New International Version (1984)

NJB: New Jerusalem Bible-Catholic (1985)

NJPS: Tanakh, A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures (1999)

NKJV: New King James Version (1982)

NRSV: New Revised Standard Version (1989)

NLT: New Living Translation (1996)

NT: New Testament

orthopraxy: lit. “the right action,” how the Bible or one's theology is lived out in the world

OT: Old Testament

PreachC: The Preacher’s Commentary

REB: Revised English Bible (1989)

RSV: Revised Standard Version (1952)

t. Tosefta

Tanach (Tanakh): the Old Testament

Thayer: Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament

TDNT: Theological Dictionary of the New Testament

TEV: Today’s English Version (1976)

TNIV: Today’s New International Version (2005)

TNTC: Tyndale New Testament Commentaries

TWOT: Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament

UBSHNT: United Bible Societies’ 1991 Hebrew New Testament revised edition

v(s). verse(s)

Vine: Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words

Vul: Latin Vulgate

WBC: Word Biblical Commentary

Yid: Yiddish

YLT: Young’s Literal Translation (1862/1898)

INTRODUCTION

For more than a decade (1997-2012) many of us have witnessed the Messianic movement grow in leaps and bounds. Much of this is obviously due to the success of Messianic Judaism in evangelizing Jewish people in need of salvation in Yeshua Messiah. Much of it is also due to a renewed interest by Christians in the Old Testament, who, by embracing their Hebraic Roots, have desired to return to a sound foundation in the Torah and Tanach Scriptures. In more diligently studying these often neglected parts of the Bible, our collective understanding of the Apostolic Scriptures or New Testament has been greatly enriched, seeing the Messiah for who He is as anticipated by those of Ancient Israel. The Psalmist’s declaration, “Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path” (Psalm 119:105) is something that has truly been realized by much of today’s Messianic community. We have learned, “How sweet are Your words to my taste! Yes, sweeter than honey to my mouth!” (Psalm 119:103).

For those Messianic Believers from Jewish backgrounds, the Torah and Tanach have always been an important part of their spiritual identity. Every week, the Torah reading is considered, as the Synagogue traces the beginnings of Ancient Israel through the Exodus and to their eventual arrival at the Jordan River. The cycle begins again, and when the Torah’s godly principles become embodied in the Jewish soul. For those Messianic Believers from diverse Christian backgrounds, the Old Testament has often been viewed as an important part of the Biblical narrative, but perhaps not as important as the New Testament. The Tanach is often viewed as being the Scriptures of Ancient Israel—surely important to know as it foretells the coming of Jesus Christ—but is there really anything else that we need it for? Psalms and Proverbs have some good sayings in them, right? I think it is safe to say that we all need to place a higher value on the Tanach Scriptures, be our examination limited because we have only examined the weekly parashah, or be our examination limited because we have considered it important only for foretelling the arrival of Yeshua or to use for a few lines in praise songs.

With a new decade of development facing our faith community, two important phenomena are occurring in today’s evangelical Christianity that could significantly affect Messianic growth in the future: (1) the overall decline of Biblical ethics and morality,[i] and (2) a renewed interest in the Old Testament, beyond that of simply trying to piece together prophecies that point to Yeshua’s Messiahship. What has happened in history when the Church has arrived at what appears to be an abyss of immorality? It’s pretty obvious when you think about it: people turn to the Old Testament! In times past, the kinds of renewals witnessed included a return to the Ten Commandments, and other ethical and moral commandments in the Tanach. But today, especially given the positive Jewish-Christian relations and interfaith dialogue that we have, the kind of renewal we are bound to witness is likely to include much more than what we have witnessed in the past. People will want to consider not only the scholastic Christian tradition on the Old Testament, but also the Jewish tradition and views of the Rabbis. How did the Messiah really approach and keep the Law of Moses? What did the Prophets really call the people to do? How important is the Exodus in understanding salvation history? The opportunities not only for individuals to be discipled and for the Messianic movement to grow, but also for us to see the prophesied restoration of all Israel occur, are definitely there!

Much of the predicament that we have seen in today’s evangelical Christianity is well summarized by New Testament theologian Douglas J. Moo. He writes, “Far too many Christians are abysmally ignorant of even the basic content of the Old Testament. Too many pastors avoid the Old Testament or preach only a few of its more famous stories and texts. Evangelical scholars and publishers have perpetuated the problem by producing three or four solid exegetical commentaries on New Testament books for every one on an Old Testament book.”[ii] This approach to the Tanach Scriptures is not helped by much of the negativity that New Testament theologians generally demonstrate toward it. It is commonly asserted that “the law of Christ” (Galatians 6:2) is something entirely independent of the Torah of Moses; many fail to consider that the New Covenant (Hebrews 8:8-12; 10:16-17) was something originally prophesied by Jeremiah (Jeremiah 31:31-34; cf. Ezekiel 36:25-27), where God will write the Torah onto the hearts of His people; and in the words of Ben Witherington III, perhaps worst of all, some might say “the Moses story [cannot be] the controlling narrative of God’s people, precisely because it is the era of the new covenant. The Mosaic story thus becomes a story about a glorious anachronism.”[iii] Even when New Testament theologians realize that they may go too far, and that their conclusions which keep people away from the Tanach may be inappropriate, there is often no active effort made to correct such mistakes.

In my seminary studies I discovered that for the most part, those of the New Testament department tended to sit in their own little world off to themselves. (I sincerely hope this was just my experience, and not the experience of others.) While there are many godly theologians who dedicate their God-given talents and skills to interpret (primarily) the words of Yeshua and Paul, and I have certainly learned many excellent things from them, they often do not have to carry the same kind of burden as do scholars who specialize in the Old Testament. They too frequently disregard Yeshua’s admonition to fulfill the Law (Matthew 5:17-19).[iv] Those in the Old Testament department, as I discovered, not only have to teach you what you need to know about the Tanach Scriptures and their history—but also how the Tanach indeed does foretell of the Messiah who was to come and save us from our sins. They have to show how the Tanach is relevant for Believers today. I have found that Old Testament theologians are generally more concerned with the whole Bible than those in the New Testament department. They are required to make you understand that when Paul told Timothy “All Scripture is inspired by God” (2 Timothy 3:16), he was primarily speaking of the Tanach Scriptures. Unfortunately, there are usually not enough of them.

John Goldingay writes how “One of the New Testament’s own convictions is that the Old Testament is part of the Scriptures (indeed, is the Scriptures)…and that the Old Testament provides the theological framework within which Jesus needs to be understood. The New Testament is then a series of Christian and ecclesial footnotes to the Old Testament, and one cannot produce a theology out of footnotes.”[v] How much do we miss in our examination of the Apostolic Scriptures, because we do not know enough about the Tanach? It is insufficient for any interpreter who looks at the ministry of Yeshua to exclusively assume that the Old Testament is concerned about the Messiah to come. While Messianic expectation is absolutely undeniable, the need to examine these texts on their own merits—specifically for what they teach us about the human condition and God’s interactions with the world—cannot be overstated! Goldingay has actually helped pioneer usage of the term “First Testament,” as though this part of the Bible is Act I in a two-act play. For us as the Messianic movement, we simply use the term Tanach/Tanakh, appropriated from the Jewish theological tradition, an acronym for: Torah/Law, Nevi’im/Prophets, and Ketuvim/Writings.[vi] We use the term “Old Testament” infrequently, often for the familiarity of others.

What ultimately concerns anyone who examines these Scriptures is not what you call them or how you order them, but how you interpret them and the role they play in your theology of God and the mission of Yeshua. What does the Tanach teach us as the people of God about God? In evangelicalism today, particularly because of the various moral and ethical crises that it faces, interest in the Tanach is at an absolute all time high. People are not only turning to the Tanach to find out more about the Lord and Savior we love so dearly, but also to find out what God expects of His people in their conduct. As Old Testament theologian Walter C. Kaiser has had to sadly observe, “The current evangelical generation has been raised almost devoid of any teaching on the place and use of the law in the life of the believer. This has resulted in a full (or perhaps semi-) antinomian approach to life. Is it any wonder that the unbelieving society around us is so lawless, if those who should have been salt and light to that same society were themselves not always sure what it was that they should be doing?”[vii] Kaiser does not beat around the bush in asserting that in dismissing the Tanach Scriptures and almost exclusively focusing on the New Testament, evangelical Christianity is partly responsible for the American holocaust of legalized abortion.[viii] This does not mean that the Apostolic Scriptures are in error by any means, but simply that people have not looked at the larger whole of God’s Word and have suffered as a result.

Realizing that it has gone too far in forgetting much of the Tanach Scriptures, a renaissance has begun among today’s Christians. They are trying to rediscover the role that the Old Testament plays in their relationship with God, and what it teaches us about evangelism and His mission for the world. Christopher J.H. Wright describes, “We read the Old Testament messianically or christologically in the light of Jesus; that is, we find in it a whole messianic theology and eschatology that we see fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth…But what we have so often failed to do is go beyond the mere satisfaction of ticking off so-called messianic predictions that have ‘been fulfilled.’…[W]e have failed to go further because we have not grasped the missional significance of the Messiah.”[ix] While the ministry of Yeshua will undoubtedly affect how one reads the Tanach Scriptures, the treasures that the Tanach holds for understanding them in their original context for the people of Ancient Israel cannot be forgotten. Indeed, they may give us important clues for what it means to be a light to the nations (Isaiah 42:6; 49:6), and for God’s people to affect the world around them (Deuteronomy 4:6). The Tanach teaches us about God’s mercy available for those who repent (2 Chronicles 7:14), and His impending judgment on those who fail to repent (Malachi 3:2). Trends that we see arising in today’s evangelical Christian theology—as the Old Testament is reclaimed as an important part of God’s revelation—only work in the Messianic movement’s favor!

For most of my time as a Messianic teacher (at least as of now), I have exposited upon the Apostolic Scriptures. This is not at all because I lack an interest in the Tanach; it is because our faith community presently finds itself significantly behind the curve in coherent and scholastically-engaged resources on the New Testament, in particular the Pauline Epistles. Also to be considered is whether we are really prepared to delve into the Ancient Near Eastern world of the Tanach. In 2006, as I worked on the companion volume to this work, A Survey of the Apostolic Scriptures for the Practical Messianic, I made the following statement,

it is much easier to survey the Apostolic Scriptures as we are largely dealing with a broad First Century of 100 to 120 years, whereas the Tanach spans from the Creation of the world to the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon, with contemporary literature spanning anywhere from 2,200 to 4,000 years. There is actually less controversy surrounding the composition of the New Testament than the Old Testament, so not surveying the Tanach before the Apostolic Scriptures has been done to introduce you to smaller issues before greater issues.

It continues to be my observation that much of the Messianic movement today has a real problem with viewing the Apostolic Scriptures in their Ancient Mediterranean context. This is a Mediterranean context where both Second Temple Judaism and Greco-Roman classicism must be considered. Realizing that if Messianic people have difficulty understanding the role that both the Jewish Rabbis and the Hellenistic philosophers play in understanding the Apostolic Scriptures—even if the latter are primarily consulted to show where the Bible’s message runs contrary—how much more difficulty would Messianic people have with considering the great cultural diversity of the Tanach?[x] It is not enough for us to exclusively consult the Rabbinic tradition for understanding the Hebrew Bible, when the Ancient Israelites lived and interacted in a world with neighbors whose literature affected the development of Scripture. Much of what the Tanach says runs entirely contrary to the views of Israel’s neighbors in Egypt, Canaan, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, etc. At the same time, knowing about Ancient Israel’s neighbors helps us understand that the Ancient Israelites really did exist, and that the Tanach books can be trusted. K.A. Kitchen asks in his massive work, On the Reliability of the Old Testament, “Are they purely fiction, containing nothing of historical value, or of major historical content and value, or a fictional matrix with a few historical nuggets embedded?”[xi]

Whether you are aware of this or not, one of the most significant reasons why Christian pastors have stayed away from the Tanach Scriptures has not necessarily been because of a lack of seeing its great relevance for modern life. It is because they do not want to deal with anything “controversial.” When you teach from the Old Testament, difficult questions such as the following inevitably get asked:

•      Why is most of the Old Testament anonymous, having many books with no stated author?

•      Is the doctrine of resurrection a late concept, or did it appear early?

•      Were the Prophets mentally unstable, or were they really filled with the Holy Spirit?

•      Did David really kill a “giant”?

•      Were women really (that) oppressed in Old Testament times? Why is the Old Testament so “patriarchal”?

•      Did God really condone genocide against the Canaanites?

•      Who was the Pharaoh of the Exodus? How many people were really involved? Why is there no Egyptian record of the Exodus?

•      Can I trust the Genesis account of the Flood in light of the Epic of Gilgamesh? Was the Flood worldwide, or worldwide only to those living in Mesopotamia?

•      Did Moses really “write” all of the Torah, or was it compiled after the Babylonian exile?

•      Isn’t it true that the Old Testament portrays a God of vengeance and wrath, while the New Testament portrays a God of love and mercy? Why do we really need the Old Testament?

•      Am I allowed to reconcile the Genesis 1 Creation account to what astronomy has discovered about the Big Bang, and the age of the universe estimated at around 13 billion years?

These are only a handful of the questions that inquiring minds ask about the Tanach Scriptures, and you can easily see why many pastors and Sunday school teachers would prefer to just not deal with them. So they only stick to the New Testament in their preaching and teaching. Yet even the Apostolic Scriptures call us to do better: “Always be prepared to make a defense to any one who calls you to account for the hope that is in you” (1 Peter 3:15, RSV). Anyone who looks to the Holy Scriptures for spiritual insight and guidance is called by the Lord to not avoid any controversies it may have. While immediate answers may not always be possible for those criticizing our convictions of its truth, answers to the questions above can be found. It is our responsibility as diligent students of the Word to find them when controversies arise, and not sweep them under the rug.

I have primarily been a Messianic teacher of the Apostolic Scriptures, because the New Testament often goes unaddressed by many teachers in our faith community. I find the Apostolic Scriptures to be a relatively free field that I can plow, plant, water, and sow—meaning that I can teach and comment on them without having to look like I am “competing” with someone else. But as I have studied the Tanach Scriptures, interestingly enough, I have found that on the whole it too is a relatively free field. In the past ten years, while there are many people in the Messianic movement who “study Torah,” there are not a great many who study Tanach. Our examination of the Tanach Scriptures as Messianics does not often go that far beyond the weekly parashah. While I can understand some of the avoidance of the Apostolic Scriptures on the part of a few (even though I wholeheartedly do not agree with it!), primarily because of common Christian antagonism toward the Tanach, I am very much concerned that if all we focus on is the Torah—we will run the serious danger of seeing a group of quasi- or semi-Sadducees in our midst.[xii] Ending our Biblical examination at Deuteronomy, and forgetting Joshua-2 Chronicles or Malachi, is a problem we need to avoid at all costs! After all, as our Lord Yeshua said, “all things which are written about Me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled” (Luke 22:44). This includes much more than just the Pentateuch.

There are various places within the Gospels where “the Law” is referred to where more than just Genesis-Deuteronomy is in view.[xiii] For Yeshua and the Apostles, “Torah” or God’s Instruction actually included more than just those books of the Bible, but actually the whole of the Tanach Scriptures. It really does amaze me that for a movement that claims to want to recapture and reemphasize the Tanach Scriptures, how much of it we actually overlook, if not avoid. While prophecies such as Isaiah 4:3 and Micah 4:2, “instruction shall come forth from Zion” (NJPS), are absolutely imperative—such torah undoubtedly includes more than just Genesis-Deuteronomy. Will we be a movement that focuses only on the Torah in our Tanach studies, teaching, and preaching? Or will we learn to incorporate more of the Tanach in our understanding of the Biblical message? This volume purposefully uses Pentateuch in many places in reference to the Torah,[xiv] because of the unfortunate reality that for many Messianics today, the Torah has become the only relevant Scripture. I wish to see us learn to appreciate the Tanach as a whole, and not only its first five books.

Please understand that I believe that examining the weekly parashah is a good exercise for today’s Messianics, one that can be documented going back to at least the First Century C.E. (Acts 15:21). Many of us benefit from hearing a teaching on the weekly Torah portion. But more could be done—even within our engagement of the weekly Torah portion! Too much of the Torah teaching I have directly witnessed is really the weekly parashah used as a springboard to rant on any number of issues (often to unfairly chastise our Christian brethren). This is not what we need to be doing. Instead, we need to submit ourselves to a wider array of instruction from the Tanach. How many of us do not know how the themes of the Torah and Tanach inform us about the life and ministry of Yeshua? How many of us are not able to make typological connections between the accounts seen in the Tanach, and what we witness in the Apostolic Scriptures? When was the last time any of us examined a book like Nahum, Habakkuk, or Haggai? How many of us really do forget the missional imperatives of God’s people as originally given in the Tanach?

How much Messianic examination of the Torah and Tanach is really just one step above a felt board Sunday school teaching? Even in weekly Torah studies, important subjects are often glossed over that must be discussed. One of the most significant aspects of analyzing the Tanach regards the historical and compositional issues that are largely not needed in similar examination of the Apostolic Scriptures. While Messianic examinations of the Apostolic Scriptures are being invigorated today with close attention paid to historical detail, will we be able to do something similar with our Tanach studies? I have observed, for example, that when we often come across a difficult-to-understand text, Messianics often immediately turn to the Rabbinic tradition for answers. This often means consulting ultra-Orthodox Jewish materials. These can certainly help us, but how many of these materials do not answer some of the critical questions (or even condemning questions) that have been asked in the past two centuries?

In 2004 The Jewish Study Bible was released, published by Oxford University Press. The very fact that “Jewish” was in the title meant that Messianics had to go out and buy it! Much to their surprise, what they found in its study notes and introductory sections to each of the Tanach books was not very encouraging. While it was supposed to be a compendium of Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Jewish scholarship—most of the attention given was clearly Reform. Claims such as the Torah being compiled after the Babylonian exile and not written by Moses, that the Book of Esther was an ancient comedy but not real history, or that the Jews adopted Mesopotamian mythology for writing the Book of Genesis while in Babylon, really disturbed many people. But all The Jewish Study Bible had done was compile liberal Jewish views that also exist in liberal branches of Christianity. It had not put together anything new, but views that had been around for almost two centuries.

The over-reliance of the ultra-Orthodox Jewish tradition in our Tanach studies has kept the Messianic movement away from knowing about a much larger world out there, a world which often does not take a very high view of the reliability of the Old Testament. The liberal, or critical tradition, of reading the Tanach has existed since the 1800s, and has certainly not hidden itself in the world of Biblical Studies. It arose during a time when social Darwinism was en vogue. All people have to do to find it is watch documentaries on the Bible on either the History Channel or Discovery Channel, or go down to their local Barnes & Noble and pick up a book in the religion section. Messianic Believers need not be afraid of the critical tradition, but they need not be ignorant of it, either.

It is easy to discover that Jewish Biblical scholarship is often polarized between the far Right and the far Left. When one encounters such a predicament, lay interpreters will almost always choose the far Right, and this is exactly what has happened in much Messianic examination of the Tanach. While I can appreciate the desire of people who want to place their firm confidence in the Tanach Scriptures, we cannot act as though there is no criticism out there against it. Running to resources by ArtScroll for our answers when we need them might be a convenient thing to do, but it will not always help us in the long run. While there are some Jewish scholars who have helped defend the veracity of Mosaic authorship of the Torah[xv] or overall veracity of the Tanach, such scholars are often few. For the most part, it has been evangelical Christian Old Testament scholars who have sought to engage with the critical tradition, in an effort to adequately defend the veracity of the Tanach Scriptures without ignoring the harsh questions that are commonly asked. Sadly, I have found that the voice of such Christian Old Testament scholars is too frequently ignored in today’s Messianic movement. I believe that our examination of the Tanach has been stifled from not hearing what they have to say. It is to them that we will most frequently turn to see how reliable and trustworthy the Tanach actually is.

Nothing like this workbook has ever been produced in the world of Messianic Biblical Studies. A Survey of the Tanach for the Practical Messianic plows a field that has largely never been touched by us. It could be the first stage for us seeing new commentaries, exegetical papers, and resources produced by Messianic Believers on the Tanach. It is my hope that it will also invigorate a new collective interest within us to take advantage of the great treasure trove that the Tanach actually is, which will not only help our understanding of the Apostolic Scriptures, but also of the gospel message itself and how the Lord has always had an interest in people coming to Him. If we assume that this is just a “New Testament” idea, then how on Earth could the Apostle Paul ever say “The Scripture…announced the gospel in advance to Abraham” (Galatians 3:8, NIV)?[xvi] In your survey of the Tanach, please keep this in mind! Ask the Lord to show you how you can understand the good news of His salvation in a larger and more profound way.

WHAT DO YOU NEED TO SURVEY THE TANACH?

A survey may be defined as both “a detailed study, as by gathering information and analyzing it” and “a general view.”[xvii] This examination of the Tanach will primarily be general, but also be detailed in that aspects of the text will be considered which are often overlooked. Most of these aspects will be related to a text’s composition that will place it in its proper historical and/or cultural setting, and the circumstances that likely precipitated its being written or composed. Imperative to our discussions will be considering how each text should be viewed or applied in a Twenty-First Century Messianic setting, and the challenges that are commonly presented to us spiritually and theologically from them.

This study of the Tanach follows the standard Jewish book order of: Law, Prophets, and Writings.[xviii] Each study should begin with you having read the text beforehand. I would recommend that as much as possible that you dedicate several hours before each study, reading the assigned text in a single sitting. Because we are surveying Biblical texts, it is not necessary for you to pay close attention to every single detail. Instead, it is necessary for you to read the text as though you were reading a book, as we are trying to get a good feel on the overall message.

As you proceed to read large portions of the Bible in a very short timespan, I would strongly recommend that you pick a Bible version that is not translated as literally as some others. While I use the New American Standard, Updated Edition (1995) as my primary version, which is rather literal, the NASU can slow a person down significantly who is trying to read through a text to digest its basic facts. The NASU has not been published to use as a Bible that reads through more quickly like a book. For this job, I would recommend that you use a dynamic equivalency translation such as the New International Version (1984) or the New Jewish Press Society Tanakh (1999). While I know David H. Stern’s Complete Jewish Bible (Clarksville, MD: Jewish New Testament Publications, 1998) is quite popular in the Messianic movement, its constant use of Hebrew terms may be unfamiliar to many of you, who do not need to be confused. This may be a good secondary source to use, but Stern’s edition of the Tanach comes from his paraphrase of the 1917 JPS English version now in the public domain, and is not a direct translation.[xix]

When you read entire books of the Bible in a short space of time, questions will arise that you may not consider when reading shorter selections. There are some excellent study Bibles on the market that I believe can help you considerably to gain a good socio-historical feel of the text. From an evangelical and conservative point of view, these include the venerable NIV Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) and the relatively new Archaeological Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005). The before mentioned Jewish Study Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) is a good resource for you to become familiar with liberal Jewish views of the Tanach, and the New Interpreter’s Study Bible (Nashville: Abingdon, 2003) will give you a good exposure to liberal Christian views of the Tanach. Another good tool to have is a Bible atlas, as we will be going through many places that may be unfamiliar to you. I would specifically recommend the HarperCollins Concise Atlas of the Bible (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1997).

Some of you may also wish to have additional resources to make use of in your survey of the Tanach. I would recommend that you have a good Bible encyclopedia, such as the relatively conservative International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), and a one-volume commentary like the New Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970). If you would like to have a supplementary resource for the Torah, I would recommend the one-volume resource Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary (ed. David L. Lieber [New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2001]), which includes an annotated version of the JPS Torah and Haftarah commentary series. Some of these can be found at discount booksellers new or used, and should be a welcome addition to any library. For those of you who would like to hone some of your skills of reading Scripture, then I would recommend the book Bible Study That Works by David L. Thompson (Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House, 1994).

While this workbook has been compiled from a theologically conservative perspective, for some of you this will be your first encounter hearing about any kind of liberal views surrounding the composition of the Tanach. Thankfully, there is much material out there which has refuted such liberal claims. For a more general examination, I would recommend The Old Testament Documents: Are They Reliable and Relevant? (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2001) by Walter C. Kaiser, and for a Jewish defense of Mosaic authorship of the Torah, The Documentary Hypothesis and the Composition of the Pentateuch by Umberto Cassuto (Jerusalem: Shalem Press, 2006). One excellent work, primarily discussing the Ancient Near Eastern world of the Tanach Scriptures, is The Bible In Its World: The Bible & Archaeology Today (Exeter: Paternoster, 1977) by K.A. Kitchen. Kitchen’s powerhouse, though, is his massive treatise On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), which has compiled all of the extant data we have to date—both archaeological and historical, Israelite and non-Israelite—defending the veracity of the Tanach. Another good tool to have, which similarly defends the reliability of the Tanach, is A Biblical History of Israel by Iain Provan, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman III (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2003). For further consideration, you might consider reading Toward an Old Testament Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978) by Kaiser.

Most of the references that I will be making in the lectures have been gleaned from several Bible encyclopedias, including: the Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (Nashville: Abingdon, 1962), the before mentioned ISBE, and the Anchor Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992). I am also indebted to the thorough work of R.K. Harrison compiled in his Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), as well as the newer work An Introduction to the Old Testament by Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman III (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994). Some information has also been incorporated from select commentaries, most notably from the Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976-1992) and the JPS Torah series (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society). Of course, all of these are tools that you can have in your personal or congregational library.

HOW DO YOU SURVEY THE TEXT?

The procedures of this survey study should be fairly easy to follow for the person who is eager to learn. Make sure that you have set aside some time to read in a quiet place where you will not be disturbed. Make sure that you are alert, as there can be a tendency to “doze off” when reading large portions of text. Your mind will need to be focused—and you need to get those body chemicals moving!

The first thing that you should do before opening your Bible is pray. (Too many people forget to do this!) Ask the Lord to fill you with His Holy Spirit, and stimulate both your heart and your mind. Ask Him to give you the right attitude as you approach controversial texts. Ask Him to give you the skills to read the text and make intelligent observations. Ask Him to show you where your strengths and weaknesses are concerning a text.

Secondly, you should take your study Bible and jot down a few things from its introduction. Mark down how the Bible version you are working from interprets or views a text. Is its approach conservative or liberal? How many of the views are incorporated from the Rabbinical Jewish tradition and/or the Ancient Near Eastern world? To what degree is history a factor in the interpretation of a text? What are the similarities and/or differences between how Jews and Christians interpret the text?

Third, before you begin reading a text you need to remember that the Tanach Scriptures span a very broad period of time. It is too easy for us to forget that they were originally given to a diverse world that is much different than the world in which we live today. Do not interject your Western cultural or social biases into an ancient text that may make cultural or social assumptions that we do not make. Keep in mind how Ancient Israel’s worldview was subversive to the worldview of its neighbors, before you consider what the Tanach books mean for us today. At the same time, try to keep God’s salvation history plan in mind, as concepts and ideas seen in the Tanach may lay the foundation for things elaborated on more fully in the Apostolic Scriptures.

After reviewing these things, you can then begin to read the assigned text. As you read the text, you may wish to have a sheet of paper divided up into four sections. With each new character you encounter (not withstanding genealogy charts), write down his or her name. Do the same with city names and regions. Write down critical events that you see taking place which really stand out to you. Please try not to “cheat” and use any of your Bible’s headers; what events do you think are important? When you finish reading the book, write down 3-4 broad sweeping questions that you have on the fourth section. Please do this when you are finished, so you can reflect on the entire text, and not on precise issues. Be honest as you write these questions, as you need to be able to gauge where you are and where you need to improve. Obviously, if you need multiple sheets of paper—use them!

When you have finished your own survey of the text, then you may finally read the Messianic summary that I have provided here in the workbook. If you are conducting this study in a group setting with other Messianic Believers, then the suggested study questions I have offered can be used for you to ask questions about the text you have just examined. If you are doing this on your own, answer these questions yourself. Most importantly, each one of you needs to write a 1-2 paragraph summary about each of the texts of the Tanach. In your own words, encapsulate what you think makes each text important in the scope of God’s revelation to humanity. When you meet with your fellowship or study group, go around the room and share what makes each text important.

GETTING STARTED

As we begin our survey study of the Tanach, remember that our goal is to get an overall feel of the text; we do not need to understand its entire depth or all of the mysteries of God’s universe all at once. At a later time you can examine a text verse-by-verse along with some commentaries and other resources, and really get into the “meat” of it. Equally so, our goal is not to feed on just the “milk” of the Word, either. This survey study is going to be “meaty,” but will be more in the sense of having a stew with each text, as opposed to a steak. This survey study may be the first exposure that some of you will have to understanding the Tanach in a fuller historical-cultural setting.

I sincerely hope that A Survey of the Tanach for the Practical Messianic will be a great help not only to you, but to future Messianics who are looking to enrich their understanding of God’s Word. I also hope that this workbook can be used to facilitate a greater need for us to continue conducting studies of all Biblical books, and dealing with the controversies some of them present us with head on—rather than avoiding them as though they do not exist. I trust that you will all learn something new that you can integrate into your life and relationship with our Messiah Yeshua. I also trust that you will have some answers to difficult questions asked about the Tanach, which you have commonly just shuffled aside or chosen not to hear.

J.K. McKee

Editor, TNN Online

ENDNOTES FOR Introduction

[i] This is directly affected by the homosexual agenda that is dividing entire churches and denominations.

[ii] Douglas J. Moo, “Response to Walter C. Kaiser,” in Wayne G. Strickland, ed., Five Views on Law and Gospel (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 218.

[iii] Ben Witherington III, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Socio-Historical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 144.

[iv] Consult the author’s exegesis paper on Matthew 5:17-19, “Has the Law Been Fulfilled?”

I do not wish to say that all New Testament theologians are anti-Old Testament. They are not by any means! One of the most beneficial resources any of you can have is C.E.B. Cranfield’s Romans commentary (International Critical Commentary: Romans 1-8, 9-16 (London: T&T Clark, 1975 and 1979), written from a traditional Reformed perspective that is generally favorable in its disposition toward the Torah of Moses.

[v] John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology: Israel’s Gospel (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2003), 24.

[vi] This order was in relative form by the First Century C.E. (Sirach 39:1; Luke 24:44).

[vii] Walter C. Kaiser, “Response to Willem A. VanGemeren,” in Five Views on Law and Gospel, 75.

[viii] Walter C. Kaiser, “Response to Douglas Moo,” in Ibid., 400.

[ix] Christopher J.H. Wright, The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2006), 30.

[x] For a further discussion, consult the author’s article “The Role of History in Messianic Biblical Interpretation.”

[xi] K.A. Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 3.

[xii] Consult the author’s McHuey Blog post from 21 October, 2008, “Sadducees Among Us?” accessible at <http://mchuey.wordpress.com>.

[xiii] Matthew 5:17; 7:12; 11:13; 22:40; Luke 16:16; 22:44; John 1:45 (cf. 4 Maccabees 18:10).

[xiv] Please note that “Pentateuch” is simply a Greek-derived term meaning “book of five,” no different than the Hebrew term chumash. While it may not be a common term used in the Messianic movement, it is used in many of today’s scholastic Jewish works, i.e., Pentateuch & Haftorahs edited by J.H. Hertz (London: Soncino, 1960).

[xv] This notably includes Umberto Cassuto, in his brilliant work The Documentary Hypothesis and the Composition of the Pentateuch (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).

[xvi] Genesis 12:3.

[xvii] Webster’s New World Dictionary and Thesaurus, second edition (Cleveland: Wiley Publishing, Inc, 2002), 638.

[xviii] This is similarly followed by R.K. Harrison in his Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969).

[xix] Stern, CJB, xiv.

Likewise, I would seriously recommend that you not use the King James Version to use for these studies. The KJV, while a major contribution to our faith history, is nevertheless four centuries years old and reads somewhat archaically. Furthermore, it is based on younger Hebrew and Greek manuscripts unlike newer versions today like the RSV, NEB, NASU, NIV, etc.

TORAH

PENTATEUCH

BOOK OF GENESIS

Approximate date: 1440-1400 B.C.E. (Right); 1300-1200 B.C.E. (conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: the Creation of the world to Israel in Egypt

Author: Moses exclusively (Right); Moses, Joshua, and later editors (conservative-moderate); compiled traditions and mythologies (Left)

Location of author: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Babylon and/or Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and their location: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Babylon and/or Land of Israel (Left)

People:

Adam, Eve, the serpent, Cain, Abel, Cain’s descendants, Seth, pre-diluvian people from Adam to Noah (5:1-32), the Nephilim, Noah, Shem, Ham, Japheth, post-diluvian descendants from Noah to Abraham (11:10-27), Terah, Abram/Abraham, Sarai/Sarah, Lot, Canaanites, Perizzites, Amraphel (king of Shinar), Arioch (king of Ellasar), Kedorlaomer (king of Elam), Tidal (king of Goiim), Bela (king of Sodom), Zuzites, Emites, Horites, Amalekites, Amorites, Melchizedek, Eliezer of Damascus, Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Rephaites, Girgashites, Jebusites, Hagar, Ishmael, Isaac, Moab, Ben-Ammi, Abimelech, Phicol, Philistines, Nahor’s sons (22:20-24), Ephron (son of Zoar), Rebekah, Bethuel (son of Milcah), Laban, Keturah, sons born to Keturah (25:2-4), Ishmael’s sons (25:13-15), Esau, Jacob, Ahuzzath, Judith (daughter of Beeri the Hittite), Basemath (daughter of Elon the Hittite), Mahalath (sister of Nebaioth), Rachel, Leah, Zilpah, Bilhah, Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Dinah, Joseph, Israel (Jacob), Hamor, Shechem, Deborah (Rebekah’s nurse), Benjamin (Ben-Oni), Esau’s descendants (ch. 36), Ishmaelites, Midianite merchants, Potiphar, Pharaoh, Hirah, Shua, Er, Onan, Shelah, Kezib, Tamar, Perez, Zerah, Zaphenath-Paneah (Joseph’s Egyptian name), Asenath (daughter of Potiphera, priest of On), Manasseh, Ephraim, descendants of Israel who go to Egypt (46:8-27), Makir (son of Manasseh)

Places:

Garden of Eden, Pishon, Havilah, Gihon, Cush, Tigris, Asshur, Euphrates, Nod, Ararat, plains of Shinar, Babel, Ur (of the Chaldeans), Haran, Canaan, Moreh, Shechem, Bethel, Ai, Negev, Egypt, Jordan, Zoar, Sodom, Hebron, Mamre, Valley of Siddim, Ashteroth Karnaim, Ham, Shaveh Kiriathaim, Seir, El Paran, En Mishpat (Kadesh), Hazazon Tamar, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, Bela, Zoar, Elam, Goiim, Ellasar, Dan, Hobah, Damascus, Salem, Kadesh, Shur, Gerar, Beersheba, Desert of Paran, Machpelah, Aram Naharaim, Nahor, Beer Lahai Roi, Paddan Aram, Valley of Gerar, Esek (well), Sitnah (well), Rehoboth (well), Shibah (well), Bethel (Luz), Gilead, Jegar Sahadutha/Galeed (heap/pillar), Mahanaim (camp of God’s angels), Jabbok, Peniel, Succoth, El Elohe Israel (altar), Allon Bacuth, Ephratah (Bethlehem), Migdal Eder, Kiriath Arba, Dothan, Adullam, Timnah, Enaim, Nile, Goshen, Ramses, Atad, Abel Mizraim

Key Themes and Events:

creation of the cosmos, followed by the Earth / God makes the first human beings (male and female) / God places Adam in the Garden of Eden / Adam and Eve eat the forbidden fruit and are cast outside of the Garden / Cain kills his brother Abel / the Nephilim have relations with (human) females / great sin on the Earth causes God to send a flood to eliminate life / Noah is called by God to build an ark and collect pairs of animals / floodwaters sent by God eliminate life on Earth / the human survivors of the Flood are given the command to repopulate / God confuses the languages of humanity at Babel / God calls Abram out of Ur / Abram goes to Egypt because of a famine / Abram and Lot separate, with Lot going to Sodom / Lot is taken captive when Sodom is ransacked by enemy kings / Lot is rescued by Abram / Abram gives a tribute (a tenth) to Melchizedek, king of Salem / Abram and God “cut” a covenant with animal sacrifices, with God being its guarantor / Abram has relations with Hagar, who gives birth to Ishmael / God renames Abram as Abraham / God gives Abraham the covenant of circumcision at age ninety-nine / God promises that Sarah will give birth to a son / God in the form of three men visits Abraham / Abraham pleads with God for Him not to judge the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah / two angels arrive at Sodom and Gomorrah to take Lot and his family / Sodom and Gomorrah are judged by God / Lot and his daughters have sexual relations, believing that life on Earth has been wiped out / Abimelech kidnaps Sarah for his own / Sarah is returned to Abimelech, and Abimelech is blessed / Isaac is born to Abraham and Sarah / Hagar and Ishmael are sent away / Abraham, Abimelech, and Phicol seal an agreement / God asks Abraham to sacrifice Isaac / Abraham is stopped from killing Isaac, demonstrating his steadfast belief in God’s promises / Sarah dies and is buried at Machpelah / Eliezer is commissioned by Abraham to find Isaac a wife / Rebekah returns to become Isaac’s wife / Abraham dies and is buried at Machpelah / Rebekah becomes pregnant with twins, later giving birth to Jacob and Esau / Esau sells his birthright to Jacob for a meal / Isaac interacts with King Abimelech, telling him that Rebekah was his sister, just like his father Abraham had done with Sarah / Isaac moves to the Valley of Gerar, digging three wells / the Lord reaffirms His covenant with Abraham to Isaac / Esau marries two Hittite women, to the chagrin of his parents / Jacob tricks his father, not being able to see, into blessing him and giving him Esau’s birthright / Jacob must flee to his uncle Laban, as Esau wants to kill him/ Rebekah does not want Jacob to marry a Hittite woman / Esau marries again / Jacob has a dream of a ladder (or staircase) reaching up into Heaven, and so God affirms His covenant commitment upon him / Jacob arrives at Paddan Aram and meets Rachel and Laban / Jacob agrees to work for Laban for seven years, in order to marry Rachel / Jacob is tricked into marrying Leah, and must work another seven years for Rachel / Leah gives birth to: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah / Bilhah, Rachel’s maidservant, gives birth to: Dan, Naphtali / Zilpah, Rachel’s maidservant, gives birth to: Gad, Asher / Leah gives birth to: Isaachar, Zebulun, Dinah / Rachel gives birth to: Joseph / Jacob shrewdly sees that his flocks are more prosperous than Laban’s / Jacob and his family depart for Canaan, with Laban in pursuit / Laban catches up with Jacob after three days, seemingly looking for his household gods / Laban and Jacob agree not to cross a pillar they erect, harming the other / Jacob prepares to meet Esau, sending messengers ahead of him / Jacob hears Esau is coming, and prays that God would preserve him / Jacob wrestles with a being all through the night, having his hip dislocated and being renamed Israel / Jacob settles in the vicinity of Shechem / Shechem, son of Hamor, violates Dinah / the Shechemites agree to be circumcised to join in alliance with Jacob’s family / Simeon and Levi kill all males in the city, after they have been circumcised / Jacob returns to Bethel, removing the foreign gods from his household / God reaffirms that great numbers of people will come forth from Jacob / Rachel dies giving birth to Benjamin / Reuben sleeps with the concubine Bilhah / Jacob returns to see his father Isaac, who dies / Joseph, given a many-colored robe, has dreams which make his brothers jealous / Joseph’s brothers sell him into slavery, at the suggestion of Judah / Jacob is told that his son has been killed by wild animals / Joseph is sold to Potiphar in Egypt / Judah marries Shuah / Tamar marries Er, who dies / Onan fails to perform the rite of levirate marriage, and so he dies / Judah sleeps with Tamar, impregnating her, and giving her his seal and staff / Judah hears of Tamar’s pregnancy, discovering he is the father, and he must declare her righteousness as superior / Tamar gives birth to Perez and Zerah / Joseph becomes the attendant of Potiphar’s house / Joseph is falsely accused of trying to rape Potiphar’s wife / Joseph is cast into prison, quickly attaining responsibility for good conduct / Joseph interprets the dreams of Pharaoh’s cupbearer and baker / Joseph is called before Pharaoh, to interpret his dream of seven fat cows and seven lean cows / a plan is derived to save Egypt from famine / Joseph is made viceroy of Egypt, second only to Pharaoh / Joseph’s wife Asenath gives birth to two sons: Manasseh and Ephraim / Joseph prepares Egypt for the coming famine / Jacob’s sons go to Egypt to buy grain, as famine hits Canaan / Joseph recognizes his brothers, even though they do not recognize him / Joseph “accuses” his brothers of being spies / Simeon is placed into jail, as the brothers must prove their honesty by leaving and returning with their youngest / Israel agrees to let his sons return with Benjamin to Egypt / Joseph’s brothers, not knowing who he is, are invited to his house to dine / Joseph encounters Benjamin, the son of his own mother, and weeps privately / Joseph orders that his silver cup be placed in Benjamin’s bag, and the brothers are accused of thievery and divination / Joseph says that Benjamin must become his slave / Judah tries to convince Joseph to allow him to be the slave, for the sake of his father / Joseph, not being able to control himself, finally reveals himself as Joseph to his brothers / Joseph asks for his father to come to him / the Pharaoh is pleased that Joseph is reunited with his family, and grants them of the best land to graze their animals / Jacob is overjoyed to hear that Joseph is still alive / Joseph is reunited with his father / Jacob is presented before Pharaoh / Joseph must monitor the results of the famine in Egypt / Jacob prepares to die, and Joseph agrees to bury him in Canaan / Jacob blesses Joseph, as well as his sons Manasseh and Ephraim / Jacob blesses all of his sons, blessing them and prophesying over their destinies / Jacob dies and is embalmed according to Egyptian custom / a huge company of Jacob’s family, as well as Egyptian officials, make their way to Canaan to bury Jacob / Joseph assures his brothers that the past is behind them / Joseph dies, is embalmed, and is placed in a sarcophagus in Egypt

Key Scriptures: Genesis 1:27; 3:14-15; 6:5-8; 8:21-22; 9:12-16; 12:2-3; 13:14-17; 14:18-20; 15:4-6; 17:5-8; 22:7-12; 27:27-29; 28:3-4; 32:9-12, 28; 35:11-12; 45:4-7; 46:2-4, 29; 48:15-20; 50:19-21 / The Story of Creation (1:1-2:3); The Story of Adam (2:4-5:32); The Story of Noah (6:1-11:32); The Story of Abraham (12:1-25:18); The Story of Isaac (25:19-28:9); The Story of Jacob (28:10-36:43); The Story of Joseph (37:1-50:26)

Theological Summary: The Hebrew title of the first book of the Bible is Bereisheet (pronounced Bereishis in the Ashkenazic tradition), coming from the first sentence in the text, “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth” (1:1). Our English term “Genesis” is derived from the Greek Septuagint, which uses the term geneseōs in Genesis 2:4, describing “the book of the generation of heaven and earth” (LXE). This passed over into the Latin Vulgate as Liber Genesis. In the Jewish tradition, the full title of Genesis is Sefer haBereisheet, and referred to by some as Sefer haYesharim or “Book of the Upright.”[1]

The theme of the Book of Genesis is undoubtedly beginnings. “Genesis covers an immensely long period of time, longer perhaps than the rest of the Bible put together. It begins in the distant past of creation, an event about whose absolute date we cannot even speculate, through millennia to reach Abraham at the end of chapter 11” (Dillard and Longman).[2] If the lifespans of the early genealogies in chs. 5 and 11 are added together, then the text itself covers almost 2,400 years.[3] Specifically, it would cover 1,948 years from Adam to Abraham,[4] and then 361 years to the death of Joseph, equaling 2,309 years.[5] If one considers there to be missing generations or individuals via a telescoped genealogy, then the timespan between Creation and the Patriarchs becomes considerably longer,[6] with human history certainly going back 18,000-20,000 years or considerably longer. The wide breadth of space and history that Genesis covers cannot be ignored by any able interpreter. Several, if not multiplied millennia of human history, are covered in Genesis’ first twelve chapters.[7]

Geographically, Genesis can be divided into two principal segments. This first segment, chs. 1-38, comprises a great deal about what we know about humans living in Mesopotamia. Many conservative scholars are agreed that the Garden of Eden was likely located in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia was the original home of Abram, Isaac’s wife Rachel was from Mesopotamia, and Jacob lived in Mesopotamia for twenty years. The homeland of the original Hebrews was, in no uncertain terms, found in Mesopotamia. Various other parallels exist between the customs and laws followed by the Patriarchs,[8] and what was followed in Mesopotamia, in spite of them transplanting themselves to Canaan. Of extreme importance is the fact of distinct Mesopotamian influence on the first parts of Genesis. Harrison notes that “On the whole, English translations of the first dozen or so chapters of Genesis are so literal that they betray the translators’ ignorance of the Mesopotamian background that Genesis so faithfully reflects” (ISBE).[9]

“There can be no real question as to the immense antiquity of the source material that is to be found in Genesis” (Harrison).[10] We cannot ignore some distinct parallels between what we see in the Hebrew Bible and what is recorded in Mesopotamian works such as the Enuma elish creation story and Epic of Gilgamesh disastrous flood.[11] However, it must be noted that there are severe differences as well. “The Babylonian account depicts the Creation as taking place as a result of the sexual union of the gods…It is patently mythical and pagan in its orientation” (NIDB).[12] This is contrary to a Divine Creator making humankind in His own image, and being One who cares for His creatures. The Mesopotamian stories are nothing more than perverse preservations of the true Biblical account. “[I]t would not then be at all surprising if the story concerning them should come to be mythologized in pagan traditions, while being preserved in authentically historical form within the stream of tradition of which Gn. 1-11 is the inspired deposit” (Kline, NBCR).[13] It is probable though, that the author of Genesis knew of these myths when composing the text.[14]

This first segment of Genesis can largely be broken up into two halves. The first half deals with what we might call primeval or pre-history, the period from Adam to the appearance of Abraham (1:1-11:26). This largely covers the Creation and Fall of humanity, the spread of sin in the early world, Noah’s Flood, and the Tower of Babel. The second half of this segment deals with the Patriarchal history (11:27-38:1), covering the lives of Abraham and Isaac (11:27-25:11), and then with Isaac and Jacob (25:19-35:29; 37:1). These parts record Abraham’s journey to Canaan, the judgment of God upon Sodom and Gomorrah, and Abraham offering up Isaac for a sacrifice. They are interspersed by the genealogies of Ishmael (25:12-28) and Esau (ch. 36).

The second major segment of Genesis, chs. 39-50, that covers far less time, sees the scene shift from Canaan to Egypt. From 39:2-50:26 we see the lives of Jacob and Joseph, and the twelve sons of Israel having to move into Egypt. We also get a feel for the Ancient Hebrews’ lives in Egypt, and as a result, we see that the author of Genesis is quite familiar with the Egyptian civilization, with careful attention given in this part to specific agricultural advances made and perfected by Egypt.

The authorship of Genesis is a lively debate in modern theology, and has been since the mid-Eighteenth Century. Most, regardless of their position, are agreed that Genesis should not be read on its own without some connection to the rest of the Torah or Pentateuch (Exodus-Deuteronomy), as the story continues on. It is important that we remember Genesis “was not written as an independent and complete volume” (New Interpreter’s Study Bible).[15] But as one can imagine, reading the Book of Genesis in light of the rest of the Torah has caused a great deal of controversy.

Historically, both Jews and Christians have held to the position of some kind of Mosaic authorship, even though Genesis is, in a strict sense, totally anonymous.[16] Varied ancient traditions, both inside and outside of the Bible, Jewish and Christian, almost all attest to Moses being the author of Genesis (at least before 1750). The principal witness that we have attesting to genuine Mosaic authorship—as Believers—is actually the Apostolic Scriptures or New Testament. Acts 15:1, for example, treats the rite of circumcision as being “according to the custom of Moses” (even if here it involved some Rabbinic additions), a direct allusion to Genesis 17. A consensus reading of the Apostolic Scriptures assigns some level of the Torah’s authorship to Moses (Mark 12:26; Luke 24:27; Romans 10:5; 2 Corinthians 3:15), especially John 1:45 and 5:46:

•      “Philip found Nathanael and said to him, ‘We have found Him of whom Moses in the Law and also the Prophets wrote—Yeshua of Nazareth, the son of Joseph’” (John 1:45).

•      “For if you believed Moses, you would believe Me, for he wrote about Me” (John 5:46).

All of the specific quotations in the Apostolic Scriptures from Yeshua or the Apostles ascribe Moses as being the author of the Torah. “[T]he NT endorses the Jewish tradition of Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, not excluding Genesis” (Kline, NBCR).[17] Sailhamer further repeats, “It appears relatively certain that Jesus and the writers of the NT believed that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch” (EXP).[18] So, for anyone to deny Moses’ hand in composing the Torah, such a person is going against the authority of the Messiah and the Apostles.

There are, however, conservative-moderates who believe in principal Mosaic authorship of Genesis, but do allow for post-Mosaic editing in some distinct references. “The concept of Mosaic authorship does not demand the belief that Moses was the first to write every word of each account in the Book of Genesis. It is generally understood today to mean that much of his work was compilation” (NIDB).[19] Verses that clearly indicate post-Mosaic editing of Genesis include the mention of “Dan” (14:14), a list of kings that reigned in the land of Edom (36:31), and a reference to the “land of Ramses” (47:11). Many “conservative Christians have been too quick to distance themselves from the possibility of sources and too closed to any evidence of significant post-Mosaic activity” (Dillard and Longman),[20] and the idea of exclusive Mosaic authorship of Genesis permeates the vast majority of today’s Messianic community, with almost no room to move.

In affirming Mosaic authorship of the Book of Genesis, none of us can conclude that Moses is the author of every single letter. First, we do not know if he used scribes to compile the earliest edition of Genesis, and secondly, it is quite probable that Moses did incorporate outside materials in its composition. Harrison speculates that the material for chs. 1-36, including the story of Creation and the Flood, originally existed on cuneiform tablets, and that information was adapted by Moses for our canonical Genesis account:

“If it is correct to assume that the first thirty-six chapters of Genesis had originally had an independent existence as cuneiform tablets, it would have been a comparatively easy matter for a talented person such as Moses to compile the canonical book by arranging the tablets in a rough chronological order” (ISBE).[21]

Conservatives generally believe that “the writer of the Book of Genesis appears to have composed his work from ‘archival’ records of God’s great deeds in the past…the narratives within the Book of Genesis appear to be largely made up of small, self-contained stories worked together into larger units by means of various geographical and genealogical tables. If such is, in fact, the case, one should not expect to find absolute uniformity of style, etc., among all the individual narratives any more than an absolute uniformity can be expected in later historical books” (Sailhamer, EXP).[22] Some divide the material for Genesis 1:1-37:2 into eleven possible tablets,[23] noting “to what extent [Moses] wrote any of its contents, with the possible exception of all or part of the Joseph narratives, is unknown” (Harrison).[24]

Moses may better be described as the “principal compiler” of Genesis, if indeed he took Patriarchal traditions that had been passed down in the community of Israel, and via God’s Spirit integrated them into His authorized religious Instruction. It is notable that having been raised in Egypt, he would have seen that the original Genesis was written on leather, a more preferred and durable material than clay.[25] The author of Genesis has a knowledge of Egypt (13:10) and the Egyptian language (41:43-45), certainly pointing to Moses. We must, however, consider the fact that whatever was written in Moses’ time was composed in the paleo-Hebrew or Phoenician script, whereas what we have today is in Assyrian or Babylonian block script, acquired by the Jewish exiles who were taken to Babylon. The Talmud tells us that Ezra the Priest was responsible for the final composition of the Tanach in the current block script (b.Sanhedrin 21b),[26] and so the Torah, and thus Genesis as we have it today, is a product of the post-Babylonian exile.

Our ministry falls well within the conservative-moderate position of Mosaic authorship of the Book of Genesis, and are certainly not advocates of the liberal view.[27] We cannot ignore the broad array of events and history that Genesis covers,[28] including the incorporation of outside sources into Genesis, so it is best to say that we believe in the “essential authorship” of Moses (Dillard and Longman),[29] allowing for possible later editing by individuals such as Joshua or Ezra the Priest.

The liberal view of the composition of Genesis, and indeed the entire Torah, is one that most Messianics are not even aware of. Liberals all deny any Mosaic authorship of Genesis, and instead adhere to some kind of “documentary hypothesis.” The most widely advocated of these theories is commonly called JEDP, which is believed to string together various religious traditions from a distinct element of Ancient Israel. Forms of this theory have existed since the mid-1700s, and were popularized in Germany in the mid-1800s, specifically by Julius Wellhausen. It is often based on factors such as differing literary styles, usage of the Divine name YHWH, alleged contradictions in the text, and perceived developments in Israel’s religion[30]—although there have been significant scholars who have challenged it.[31]

Liberals advocate that the Jews returning from Babylonian exile in the Sixth Century B.C.E. compiled various traditions into what we now call the Torah, ascribing authorship to Moses. Extreme liberals believe that the story of Creation and the Flood are largely myths, coupled with other “local legends” such as the judgment upon Sodom and Gomorrah.[32] Perhaps Abraham existed as an historical figure, but never as prominent as Genesis portrays him. Furthermore, many have tried to postulate that the religion of Ancient Israel developed from polytheistic to monotheistic, so any references in the Hebrew text to “YHWH” (J) or “Elohim” (E) are actually to be viewed as references to two different deities. This view came to prominence in a time highly dominated by social Darwinism, and is undeniably affected by the theory of evolution.[33]

Liberal views that deny the historicity of the Book of Genesis are frequently developed by people who deny anything supernatural. Conservative views are commonly criticized as being “shaken by modern natural science, especially by biology and Darwinism” (IDBSup).[34] While JEDP is a very common theory to hear in liberal Christian seminaries, many Jews likewise believe in it.[35] Many in Jewish and Christian institutes think that they “have to” believe it because “everyone else does,” but as Sarna validly points out, “it is beyond doubt that the Book of Genesis came down to us, not as a composite of disparate elements but as a unified document with a life, coherence, and integrity of its own. For this reason, a fragmentary approach to it cannot provide an adequate understanding of the whole.”[36] A good trend in Biblical scholarship among liberals appearing more and more is acknowledging some kind of unity in Genesis on literary grounds,[37] recognizing that all readers have to deal with the text in its final form, even though some Mosaic involvement in Genesis’ composition will still be denied by these people.

From a textual standpoint the major witnesses that we have of the Book of Genesis are the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch, the Greek Septuagint (LXX), and Genesis fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[38] On the whole, the Hebrew textual witnesses of Genesis are very good, but on occasion it can be necessary to find a better reading evident in a secondary version because of Genesis’ antiquity.[39] This is especially true of translation into English where the Hebrew can be unclear or vague, and the Greek LXX will often give a translator clues as to what a clearer rendering in English can be.

The theological message of Genesis is clear to anyone who reads it. Genesis must be understood for a person to understand the rest of the Bible.[40] Genesis lays the groundwork via the promises given by God to Abraham for the establishment of the nation of Israel, and most importantly lays the groundwork for understanding the Messiah to come. Genesis is highly monotheistic as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph are all relating themselves to a single deity. We see God relating to humanity in both love and judgment in Genesis, characteristics seen throughout the rest of Scripture.

As Genesis lays the foundation for the rest of the Bible, and specifically the Torah, we see that Israel is not just created by random chance, but by God directly intervening in the lives of people. We see that God has a plan of blessing all the peoples of Planet Earth through the line of Abraham (12:1-3), and the beginning of the people who will accomplish this blessing as His representatives. Sarna summarizes that “the entire Hebrew Bible is both God-centered and Israel-centered,”[41] so any examination of Genesis by us as Messianic Believers today must be done by us seeing what God’s ultimate agenda is for the world: to see humanity’s restoration to Himself. Not surprisingly, some of the themes seen at the beginning of Genesis are repeated at the end of Revelation.[42]

When we consider the theology of today’s Messianic movement, some challenges exist in our present approach to Genesis. While many Messianic Believers engage in a consistent study of the Torah, including Genesis, some tend to make the reverse mistake of liberals who deny that its miraculous events took place. Some Messianics have an “overly mythical” view of Genesis that largely comes from consulting ultra-Orthodox and Chassidic Jewish sources, at the expense of understanding Genesis in the context of the Ancient Near East. Honest inquiries about human origins and the greater universe are often dismissed. We would do well in the future to adapt a more conservative-moderate view of Genesis, where we fully affirm the accuracy of the text, that God did indeed create the world intentionally with humans made by His intelligent design, that these people and the events actually did take place, and that these accounts give us a vivid picture of God’s love, but also His judgment. We need to engage with more commentaries and references that do not skirt around the controversies which exist with Genesis, so that our faith can be strengthened, and we can truly see the supernatural interacting with the natural.

Bibliography

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Genesis,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 37-56.

Eissfeldt, O. “Genesis,” in IDB, 2:366-380.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Genesis,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 542-565.

____________. “Genesis,” in ISBE, 2:431-443.

Hiebert, Theodore. “Genesis,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1-84.

Hendel, Ronald S. “Genesis, Book of,” in ABD, 2:933-941.

Kline, Meredith G. “Genesis,” in NBCR, pp 79-114.

Levenson, Jon D. “Genesis,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 8-101.

McComiskey, Thomas Edward. “Genesis,” in NIDB, pp 380-382.

Sailhamer, John H. “Genesis,” in EXP, 2:3-284.

Sarna, Nahum M. “Introduction,” JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis, pp xi-xvi.

Westermann, C., and R. Albertz. “Genesis,” in IDBSup, pp 356-361.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Genesis

[1] Nahum M. Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), xi.

[2] Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman III, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), 37.

[3] O. Eissfeldt, “Genesis,” in George Buttrick, ed. et. al., The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1962), 2:368.

[4] Sarna, Genesis, xii.

[5] Ibid.; such a basic approach is reflected in Nosson Scherman and Meir Zlotowitz, eds., ArtScroll Tanach (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1996), 2024.

Note the chart in Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 150 with the different ages given in the textual witnesses of the Hebrew MT, Greek LXX, and Samaritan Pentateuch.

[6] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 147-152.

[7] For a further discussion on this, and related issues, the author recommends Hugh Ross, The Genesis Question: Scientific Advances and the Accuracy of Genesis, second expanded edition (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2001) and A Matter of Days: Resolving a Creation Controversy (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2004).

[8] Thomas Edward McComiskey, “Genesis,” in Merrill C. Tenney, ed., The New International Dictionary of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987), 380.

[9] R.K. Harrison, “Genesis,” in Geoffrey Bromiley, ed., International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 4 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 2:438.

[10] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 552.

[11] Ibid., pp 555-558; Ronald S. Hendel, “Genesis, Book of,” in David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols. (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 2:938-939.

[12] McComiskey, “Genesis,” in NIDB, 381.

[13] Meredith G. Kline, “Genesis,” in D. Guthrie and J.A. Motyer, eds., The New Bible Commentary Revised (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), 79.

[14] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 552.

[15] Theodore Hiebert, “Genesis,” in Walter J. Harrelson, ed., et. al., New Interpreter’s Study Bible, NRSV (Nashville: Abingdon, 2003), 1; Harrison, “Genesis,” in ISBE, 2:431-432; Dillard and Longman, 37.

[16] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 542; Dillard and Longman, 39.

[17] Kline, “Genesis,” in NBCR, 79.

[18] John H. Sailhamer, “Genesis,” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. et. al., Expositor’s Bible Commentary, 12 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976-1992), 2:5.

[19] McComiskey, “Genesis,” in NIDB, 380.

[20] Dillard and Longman, 39; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 542.

[21] Harrison, “Genesis,” in ISBE, 2:437.

[22] Sailhamer, in EXP, 2:4.

[23] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 548-551.

[24] Ibid., 542.

[25] Harrison, “Genesis,” in ISBE, 2:437-438; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 552.

[26] “And even though the Torah was not given through [Ezra], the script was changed through him” (b.Sanhedrin 21b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. MS Windows XP. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2005. CD-ROM).

[27] Cf. Dillard and Longman, 38.

[28] Cf. Sailhamer, in EXP, 2:3-4.

[29] Dillard and Longman, 40.

[30] Eissfeldt, “Genesis,” in IDB, 2:369-373; C. Westermann and R. Albertz, “Genesis,” in Keith Crim, ed., Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), 358; Hendel, “Genesis” in ABD, 2:933-938; Dillard and Longman, pp 40-44.

[31] Harrison, “Genesis,” in ISBE, 2:433-437.

[32] Eissfeldt, “Genesis,” in IDB, 2:376-378.

[33] Ibid., 3:379.

[34] Westermann and Albertz, “Genesis,” in IDBSup, 356.

[35] Jon D. Levenson, “Genesis,” in Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, eds., The Jewish Study Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 11.

[36] Sarna, Genesis, xvi.

[37] Dillard and Longman, 46-47; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 564.

[38] Hendel, “Genesis,” in ABD, 2:933.

[39] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 565.

[40] Dillard and Longman, 37.

[41] Sarna, Genesis, xii.

[42] Harrison, “Genesis,” in ISBE, 2:432.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON GENESIS:

1. Which of the narratives in Genesis do you consider to be the most important? Or, at least requiring greater investigation on your part?

2. Summarize the features of the idyllic state of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. How do you intend to see that this condition is restored one day, or at least that elements of it are captured right now?

3. What were the conditions that required God to send a flood upon the Earth?

4. What do you think is most significant about the life of Abraham? Summarize God’s original promise to him, and how Abraham responded.

5. Why do you think God judged Sodom and Gomorrah?

6. Do you believe that Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice Isaac represents anything important?

7. Summarize the events in the early life of Jacob. Which one do you think requires further inquiry on your part?

8. What are the qualities of the different sons of Jacob/Israel? What can these individuals teach us about the human condition?

9. How and why did Joseph end up in Egypt? How do you think Joseph advanced so quickly while in Egypt?

10. Do any of the specific blessings that Jacob/Israel gives to his twelve sons peak your interest?

11. Which issue(s) seen in the Book of Genesis do you believe may shake Messianic Bible scholarship in the future? Do you think there is anything in Genesis that the Messianic community might be avoiding?

12. In your religious experience—Messianic, Jewish, or Christian—have you ever been exposed to the idea that Moses did not write or compose any of the Torah? What is your reaction to hearing about the JEDP hypothesis? Why do you think the Messianic movement today largely avoids addressing it in any way?

REFLECTION ON GENESIS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Genesis:

BOOK OF EXODUS

Approximate date: 1440-1400 B.C.E. (Right); 1300-1200 B.C.E. (conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: Ancient Israel in bondage to the Egyptian superpower

Author: Moses exclusively (Right); Moses, Joshua, and later editors (conservative-moderate); compiled traditions and mythologies (Left)

Location of author: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Babylon and/or Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and their location: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Babylon and/or Land of Israel (Left)

People:

a new king of Egypt, Israelites, Egyptians, Moses’ mother, Moses’ sister Miriam, Pharaoh’s daughter, Jethro (Reuel), Zipporah, Gershom, Aaron, the Pharaoh (notably unnamed), Moses’ Levite genealogy (6:14-25), Pharaoh’s magicians, Joshua (son of Nun), Amalekites, Eliezer, Nadab, Abihu, Hur

People mentioned:

Jacob/Israel, Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Joseph (the sons of Israel), Shiphrah and Puah (Hebrew midwives), Abraham, Isaac, Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites, Jebusites

Places:

Egypt, Pithom, Ramses, Nile, Midian, Mount Sinai (Horeb), Red Sea,[1] Sukkoth, Etham, Pi Hahiroth, Migdol, Baal Zephon, Marah, Elim, Desert of Sin, Rephidim, “Massah” and “Meribah”[2]

Places mentioned:

Philistine country, Canaan

Key Themes and Events:

the Israelites in Egypt multiply greatly / a Pharaoh who did not know (of) Joseph comes to power in Egypt / the Hebrew midwives are told to kill male newborns / Moses is set afloat on the Nile, being rescued by Pharaoh’s daughter / Moses kills an Egyptian / Moses flees to Midian / Moses marries Zipporah, having a son named Gershom / Moses encounters God in a theophany of a burning bush / God promises to deliver His people from Egyptian bondage into the Promised Land / the Lord commissions Moses to go to Egypt and free Israel from Egyptian servitude / the Lord reveals His Divine Name of YHWH to Moses / Moses returns to Egypt and gains the confidence of the Israelite elders / Moses’ first encounter with Pharaoh is a disaster, with the Israelites required to make bricks without straw / the Israelite elders consider Moses a failure / the Lord repeats His call upon Moses / Moses’ Levite genealogy is given / Aaron is appointed as a speaker alongside Moses / Aaron’s staff becomes a snake, and swallows the staff-snakes of Pharaoh’s magicians / the water of the Nile is turned into blood / massive numbers of frogs are unleashed upon Egypt / massive numbers of gnats are unleashed upon Egypt / massive numbers of flies are unleashed upon Egypt / a plague falls upon Egyptian livestock / boils manifest themselves upon Egyptian people and livestock / intense hail is unleashed upon Egypt / a great plague of locusts is unleashed upon Egypt / great darkness is manifested upon Egypt — between all these judgments, Pharaoh’s heart is hardened — God decrees that a great plague upon Egypt’s firstborn is to be released / the regulations for Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread are given / the Israelites are instructed to slay a lamb, place its blood on the doorframes of their houses, and eat bitter herbs and unleavened bread / the Egyptian Pharaoh capitulates to the judgments on his country, and lets the Israelites go completely / the company of Israelites (and others) is directed by God to the shores of the Red Sea / the Pharaoh of Egypt is distraught, and decides to pursue the Israelites to place them back into slavery / the Red Sea parts in two and the Israelites are able to transverse to the other side / the Egyptian army chases in after the Israelites and is swallowed up by the sea / a song is commissioned to remember God’s defeat of the Egyptians / Moses turns bitter water into sweet water / God sends the Israelites “manna” to eat for their food, along with specific instructions on how to collect it / the Israelites test God to send them water at “Massah” and “Meribah” / the Amalekites attack, and are defeated by Joshua and an Israelite force / Moses has a reunion with his father-in-law, Jethro / Israel encamps before Mount Sinai / the Lord speaks His Ten Words (or Ten Commandments) to Moses / Moses is given specific instructions regarding Hebrew slaves, personal injuries, protection of property, social responsibility, laws of justice and mercy, the Sabbath, and three annual festivals the Israelites are to observe / God emphasizes how Israel will occupy the Land promised to them / God’s covenant is confirmed before the people of Israel / Moses ascends Mount Sinai for forty days and forty nights / Moses is given the instructions by God on how to manufacture and construct the Tabernacle (chs. 25-28; 30-31) and consecrate the priests (ch. 29) / the Lord emphasizes the severity of the Sabbath / the Lord gives Moses two tablets inscribed with His own finger / the Israelites demand that Aaron make them gods to worship / Moses intercedes for the Israelites when the Lord is determined to eliminate them / Moses smashes the tablets given to him by God, and pulverizes the golden calf into a powder mixing it with water for the people to drink / Moses calls upon the Levites to go through the camp eliminating any rebels / the Tent of Meeting is established where Moses and the elders will meet with the Lord, and also resolve disputes / Moses ascends Mount Sinai again, and chisels on tablets according to the direction of the Lord / returning from the mountain, Moses must put a veil over his face to hide the radiance of the Lord / the Tabernacle is constructed, following the instructions previously given by God (chs. 35-39) / the Tabernacle is completed and formally consecrated with Aaron as high priest / the glory of God fills the Tabernacle, with the Israelites moving only whenever the cloud would direct them

Key Scriptures: Exodus 3:7-9, 14-15, 18-20; 6:2-5; 8:18-19; 9:15-17; 10:1-2; 11:4-9; 12:12-20, 24-28; 13:8-9; 14:3-4, 10-14; 15:10-18; 17:10-13; 19:5-6; 20:5-6, 23; 23:27-32; 31:14-18; 32:7-14; 33:14-23; 34:5-7, 14, 33-35; 40:34-38 / Israel in Egypt (1:1-12:36); Israel in the wilderness (12:37-18:27); Israel at Sinai (19:1-40:38)

Theological Summary: The Hebrew title of the second book of the Bible is Shemot (pronounced Shemos in the Ashkenazic tradition), meaning “Names,” derived from its first sentence, “Now these are the names of the sons of Israel” (1:1a). The term “Exodus” used in our English Bibles is derived from the Greek Septuagint, which designates this text Exodos. A transliterated form of Shemot, Oualesmoth, is used in some ancient Greek Bibles,[3] and others may use the form Exagogue.[4] The terms Exodos and Exagogue both convey the idea of a departure or going out, which are obviously major themes of the book.

In its opening lines, the Book of Exodus calls us to consider the family that has grown exponentially from the characters Abraham and Sarah, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph,[5] and immediately records how God has been faithful to them to multiply their descendants. The text of Exodus, though, transitions us from the promises given by God to the fulfillment of those promises. Exodus is a profoundly important text for anyone wanting to understand the work of God throughout history. Regardless of one’s theological orientation, “The Exodus from Egypt provides a focus for the OT, and has influenced its entire understanding of God” (Clements, IDBSup).[6] As the departure of the Ancient Israelites from Egyptian bondage is the major theme of Exodus, it is not surprising that it has influenced a great number of “‘theologies of liberation’ movements” (Sarna).[7]

Anyone who reads the Bible will notice that the Book of Exodus records some of its greatest and most profound events.[8] The deliverance of an Israel enslaved by Egypt, via God Himself, and God’s judgment on the ancient world’s major superpower, feature prominently in the opening chapters. We see the beginning of Israel being called out and consecrated as God’s special nation for His service. We also see the gift of the Law given by God to Israel to help them accomplish the task of testifying of His might and power to the world.

The Jewish theological tradition primarily views the Book of Exodus as the key text concerning the giving of the Torah to Israel. This Torah is to make Israel special among all the nations of the world. While not denying the importance of the giving of the Law, the Christian theological tradition generally extends the meaning of Exodus’ events as prefiguring Yeshua and His sacrifice for humanity.[9] From both perspectives, Exodus is a critically important text. Without the Exodus of Israel from Egypt, it is valid to say that you have no Judaism.[10] Without the Exodus and Passover Lamb, what prophetic typology does Yeshua the Messiah come to significantly fulfill?[11]

The Book of Exodus opens with the birth of Moses and his being separated out by God (chs. 1-4). After being spared from certain death and being raised in the Egyptian court, Moses discovers that he is an Israelite and is forced out into the wilderness. God first reveals His Divine Name YHWH to him (6:3), indicating that as the “I AM” that He is the God of Abraham who continues to be real and faithful to his descendants.[12] Moses is used by God as His vessel against the Egyptians (chs. 5-14), as God issues extreme judgments upon Egypt that culminate in the radical removal of His people via the Red Sea crossing. This is very unique for the Ancient Near East, because we see God actively intervening on behalf of His people,[13] and furthermore in total control of the very elements that judge those who are oppressing them. A major feature of this judgment includes the death of the firstborn and the establishment of Passover (12:43-49).

A sizeable part of Exodus includes the covenant that God establishes with His people while in the desert (chs. 15-34). Arguably, the most significant segment of this is the giving of the Ten Commandments (20:2-17). In these sections of Exodus, we see that Israel agrees to stipulations consistent with Ancient Near Eastern covenants involving blood sacrifice.[14] While this is all being finalized, though, the Israelites rebel and worship the golden calf, thinking that Moses is dead on Mount Sinai (32:4). In spite of this, God forgives Israel and gives them instructions concerning the Tabernacle (35-40:33). This is a strong indication that God desires to be among and dwell with His people (40:34-38),[15] something that was very unique for the time and region, because in other beliefs humans were almost always seen as being the slaves of the deity, not those the deity wants to have a relationship with.

As with the rest of the Torah, the authorship of Exodus is vigorously debated in modern theology. The authorship of Exodus cannot be divorced from the overall authorship of the rest of the Pentateuch, notably including Genesis.[16] The two general positions asserted among theologians are: (1) conservatives who adhere to some kind of Mosaic involvement in Exodus’ composition, and (2) liberals who deny any kind of Mosaic involvement in Exodus’ composition.

On the whole, conservative theologians hold to Moses being the principal author of Exodus. Walter C. Kasier, Jr. notes that “There are several internal claims in Exodus that directly ascribe authorship to Moses. He is told to record on a scroll the episode of Israel’s victory over Amalek (17:14). He is instructed to write down the Ten Commandments (34:4, 27-29). He ‘wrote down everything the LORD said’ (24:4), which included at least the Book of the Covenant (20:22-23:33)” (EXP).[17] Mosaic authorship of Exodus in association with its events is asserted all throughout the Tanach (Joshua 1:7; 8:31-32; 1 Kings 2:3; 2 Kings 14:6; Ezra 6:18; Nehemiah 13:1; Daniel 9:1-13; Malachi 4:4). The testimony of the Apocrypha ascribes authorship to Moses (Sirach 45:5), and most notably so does the Apostolic testimony of the New Testament (Luke 16:29; John 7:19).

Conservatives often assert that “a great many Near Eastern literary sources such as annals and court histories show that events of any significance were recorded at the time they occurred or shortly thereafter” (Harrison, ISBE),[18] which would require that the events of the Exodus be recorded at a time adjacent to them having taken place. It is notable, though, that conservative theologians, while asserting primary Mosaic composition of Exodus, do not deny additional editing of the text by others, notably Ezra the Scribe at the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon (b.Sanhedrin 21b).[19] This may also include the involvement of scribes employed by Moses himself in composing the text in a more final form.[20] The non-liberal Jewish tradition affirms the giving of both the Written and Oral Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai (m.Avot 1:1).

Harrison indicates, “Those who [support] the Mosaicity of Exodus [are] generally ready to admit that it was not by any means written as a continuous narrative; that there may well be indications of editorial activity, some perhaps emerging from the post-Mosaic era, and that quite probably the earliest portion of the book to be committed to writing after the Decalogue and the Covenant Code was the Song of Moses and Miriam.”[21] Some things that could have been clarified by redactors after Moses include the explanation of the manna phenomenon (16:33-36), as well as the description of Moses as “greatly esteemed in the land of Egypt” (11:3). “Moses could hardly be expected to have described himself as being of impressive stature in Egyptian society. But even here little prevents this from being a typical marginal gloss that was incorporated into the text at a later stage” (Harrison, ISBE).[22] Some assert that there may also have been modifications made to the Book of the Covenant section after Moses’ death.[23] As with Genesis, the idea of sole Mosaic authorship of Exodus, without any post-Mosaic changes, is present in the vast majority of today’s Messianic community, often with no room for an engaged interpreter to maneuver.

It is notable that conservative theologians are not agreed on the exact timing of the Exodus. While most will agree that the entry of Jacob and his family into Lower Egypt is probably connected somehow with the Semitic Hyksos invasion,[24] the timing of the Exodus is often divided into two camps: (1) those who advocate it having occurred in the Fifteenth Century B.C.E.,[25] and (2) those who advocate it having occurred in the Thirteenth Century B.C.E.

Those who advocate that the Exodus occurred in the Fifteenth Century B.C.E. (1400s) do so based on a strict literal reading of 1 Kings 6:1, which says that the reign of Solomon commenced “in the four hundred and eightieth year after the sons of Israel came out of the land of Egypt,” calculated in conjunction with Exodus 12:40-41.[26] Notable advocates of this view include Merrill F. Unger[27] and Walter C. Kaiser, Jr. It is probably safe to say that most in today’s Messianic community would hold to a Fifteenth Century B.C.E. view for the Exodus.

Those who advocate a Thirteenth Century B.C.E. (1200s) dating for the Exodus usually place it as having taken place during the reign of Ramses II (1290-1224 B.C.E.). Concurrent with this is an appeal made to the Merneptah stela, which refers to “Israel” living as a group in Canaan by 1230 B.C.E.[28] Advocates of a Thirteenth Century B.C.E. view consider the contemporary Egyptian history as being most favorable to the Exodus.[29] They often consider the 480 years referenced between the Exodus and reign of Solomon to be a rounded number, assuming that it represents twelve generations of forty years, and believe that it should be reduced.[30] In support of this position is the fact that the LXX rendering of 1 Kings 6:1 has the “four hundred and fortieth year” (LXE) mentioned, which indicates that the exact number could be less. Notable advocates of this view include K.A. Kitchen and R.K. Harrison. This is also the view of the author.

Reaction against a Thirteenth Century dating of the Exodus often comes because it could imply that a rounded number was used for the participants in the Exodus from the 603,550 males recorded in Numbers 1:46. (Consult the entry for Numbers for a consideration of this issue.) Dillard and Longman, advocates of a Fifteenth Century B.C.E. Exodus, do note however, “There are arguments for a late date for the Exodus…and in favor of a smaller number of Israelite participants…that treat the text with integrity.”[31]

Another debate among conservative theologians is the route of the Exodus from the Northern Route to the Southern Route to the relatively new Arabian Route theories.[32] A consensus forum on these, and other postulations, has not been held due to the lack of research as a result of the volatile politics in the region today. This largely prevents Biblical archaeologists from researching the possible sites that the Ancient Israelites traversed. In all honesty, it is difficult to determine with total accuracy the actual route of the Exodus.

Most liberal theologians doubt the historicity of the Exodus, often because of the lack of external evidence from texts outside the Biblical narrative.[33] There is a large tendency among liberals to view the Exodus as a symbolic account of God’s deliverance of His people, not to be taken literally, but as a metaphor that God is interested in justice upon evil. Oftentimes liberal scholars will try to provide more of a “natural explanation” for the events of the Exodus, and conclude that even if any such events did remotely take place, the author(s) of Exodus certainly exaggerated them for either effect or certain theological ends.

When it comes to the composition of Exodus, liberals generally assert it to primarily be a composition of the so-called J and E sources, the Yahwist and the Elohist, with possibly some P additions from the Priestly source. (See Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis.) This is a view adhered to by both liberal Christians and Jews,[34] who date Exodus’ composition to the Sixth Century B.C.E. with the Jews having returned from Babylon. A few classical liberals date Exodus’ composition no earlier than the Ninth Century B.C.E.[35]

In the liberal theological schema, the position of Moses as an important figure used by God is widely disparaged. Moses in extreme cases is sometimes asserted as being “only a minor tribal sheik, whose grave was encountered by some group on its way into the land, and was only gradually drawn into the traditions” (IDB).[36] In this construct, the Exodus is a total fabrication of myth, with a deceased “Moses” lending his name to a story composed by a nomadic group of travelers in Canaan. While this view is not adhered to by all liberals, many liberals doubt the historicity of all of the events ascribed as involving Moses. Even when affirming the existence of some kind of Moses, liberals still must say, “it appears that we can know very little about the part originally played by Moses in the events described” (Clements, IDBSup).[37]

Liberal Christian theologians are often in a very uneasy situation as Yeshua and the Disciples, as well as the Church Fathers, all treat Moses as being a real person,[38] and the Exodus being an actual event.

There are four major textual traditions attesting for the existence of the Book of Exodus: the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT), Greek Septuagint (LXX), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is notable that “The Hebrew behind the Greek Exodus seems to have differed from MT more than the other books of the Pentateuch” (Sarna, ABD),[39] and the Samaritan Pentateuch likewise has some significant additions.[40] The Dead Sea Scrolls also have some significant variants that often correspond to the Greek LXX and SP.[41] In our theology today, we have to weigh the usage of the LXX by the Apostles in their writings as carrying some kind of authority, and cannot ignore it in our exegesis of Exodus, as they might be employing some of those textual variants in their quotations.

Anyone who surveys the Book of Exodus should easily see that the overarching themes of the text are the deliverance of Israel from bondage and the presentation of God’s constitution to them.[42] The major places of the events are Egypt and Sinai. How we consider these things in our understanding as Messianic Believers today can be a bit challenging, as some are just now beginning to examine Exodus in greater detail. However, Exodus forms a major basis for us seeing how God interacts with others in the Bible, so its message can by no means be ignored—especially in a world today that largely asserts that if there is a God, he/she/it must take a “hands off” position in running the universe. When one reads Exodus, one clearly sees that the Lord God of Israel is One who directly gets involved in the affairs of humanity.

Four major themes that we see present in Exodus are: (1) God directly intervening in the lives of His people, (2) He provides for His people’s needs, (3) God wants His people to succeed, and (4) God makes plans to live among His people with the Tabernacle. In the backdrop of the Ancient Near East, these were all concepts that were widely foreign and make the God of Israel quite unique.

Other major themes that we see in Exodus are the figure of Moses acting as a mediator between Israel and God. Understanding Moses’ work will help us to better understand the work of Yeshua presently mediating between humanity and God. Furthermore, the idea of God’s covenant with Israel continues on throughout most of the Bible. Entry into a covenant relationship with God is not significantly altered until Yeshua the Messiah enters the scene, and this entry is clearly transferred from being “circumcision” to faith in Him. On the whole, though, the concept of having a covenant relationship with God is very similar.

There are some significant Messianic weaknesses of Exodus that need to be remedied. On the whole, most Messianic congregational leaders and teachers are ignorant of liberal theories surrounding Moses and the Exodus. When someone watches a television program on the Discovery Channel or History Channel about the Exodus, and then asks questions in a Bible study, he or she often cannot get a valid conservative response. Furthermore, Messianics who study the Torah on a consistent basis need to understand the Book of Exodus in the context of Ancient Egypt,[43] a suzerain-vassal treaty/covenant of the Ancient Near East,[44] and the giving of the Torah against the backdrop of other ancient codes of law.[45] Unfortunately just like Genesis, some Messianics have an “overly mythical” view of Exodus that largely comes from consulting ultra-Orthodox and Chassidic Jewish sources. This needs to change in the future, and we need to engage with more conservative, historically conscious scholarship.

As Believers in Yeshua the Messiah, the Book of Exodus shows us many things that must be understood if we are to more fully understand His entry into the world as the culmination of what the Exodus represents. Furthermore, we need not fall prey to liberal theologians who deny the Exodus, because the testimony of Yeshua and the Apostles confirms the existence of Moses and its historicity.[46] Unfortunately, this is a safety net that liberal Jews do not have.

Bibliography

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Exodus,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 57-82.

Clements, R.E. “Exodus, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 310-312.

Dozeman, Thomas B. “Exodus,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 85-144.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Exodus,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 566-588.

____________. “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:222-230.

Jones, Hywel R. “Exodus,” in NBCR, pp 115-139.

Kaiser, Jr., Walter C. “Exodus,” in EXP, 2:287-497.

McComiskey, Thomas Edward. “Exodus, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 334-335.

Sarna, Nahum M. “Introduction,” JPS Torah Commentary: Exodus, pp xi-xv.

_______________. “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD, 2:689-700.

Tigay, Jeffrey H. “Exodus,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 102-202.

Wright, G.E. “Exodus, Book of,” in IDB, 2:188-197.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Exodus

[1] Heb. yam-suf.

[2] Heb. Massah u’Merivah; rendered as peirasmos kai loidorēsis or “Temptation and Reviling” in the Greek LXX (Exodus 17:7; cf. Psalm 95:8; Hebrews 3:8).

[3] Nahum M. Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary: Exodus (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1991), xi; Nahum M. Sarna, “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD, 2:690.

[4] Sarna, Exodus, xi.

[5] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 566; R.K. Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:222; Thomas Edward McComiskey, “Exodus, Book of,” in NIDB, 334; Sarna, “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD, 2:690.

[6] R.E. Clements, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDBSup, 312.

[7] Sarna, Exodus, xi.

[8] Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., “Exodus,” in EXP, 2:292-293; Dillard and Longman, pp 64-65.

[9] G.E. Wright, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDB, 2:188.

[10] Sarna, Exodus, xiv.

[11] Dillard and Longman, pp 66-67.

[12] McComiskey, “Exodus, Book of,” in NIDB, 334.

[13] Sarna, Exodus, xiii; Sarna, “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD, 2:699.

[14] Hywel R. Jones, “Exodus,” in NBCR, 118.

[15] Dillard and Longman, pp 68-70.

[16] Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:222.

[17] Kaiser, in EXP, 2:287-288; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 569; Dillard and Longman, 58.

[18] Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:223-224.

[19] Cf. Ibid., pp 224, 226.

[20] Ibid., 2:226-227.

[21] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 568.

[22] Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:227.

[23] Harrison, Introduction to Old Testament, pp 570-572; Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:229.

[24] Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:227.

[25] Jones, “Exodus,” in NBCR, 115-116.

[26] Sarna, Exodus, xiv-xv; Dillard and Longman, 59.

[27] Jones, in NBCR, pp 115-116.

[28] Thomas B. Dozeman, “Exodus,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 86.

[29] Sarna, “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD, 2:696-669.

[30] Jones, “Exodus,” in NBCR, 116.

[31] Dillard and Longman, 62.

[32] Duane A. Garrett, ed., et. al., NIV Archaeological Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), pp 108-112; cf. Kaiser, in EXP, 2:291-292.

[33] Wright, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDB, 2:190-192; Clements, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDBSup, 312; Sarna, “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD 2:696-698; Jeffrey H. Tigay, “Exodus,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 103-104; cf. Kaiser, “Exodus,” in EXP, 2:288-290.

[34] Wright, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDB, 2:192-194; Tigay, “Exodus,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 104-105.

[35] Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:225.

[36] Wright, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDB, 2:195; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 568, 574.

[37] Clements, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDBSup, 311.

[38] Wright, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDB, 2:195.

[39] Sarna, “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD, 2:691.

[40] Ibid.

[41] Ibid.

[42] Jones, in NBCR, 115.

[43] Sarna, “Exodus, Book of,” in ABD 2:697-698.

[44] Harrison, “Exodus, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:229.

[45] Wright, “Exodus, Book of,” in IDB, 2:192; Jones, in NBCR, 118-119.

[46] Dillard and Longman, pp 66-67.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON EXODUS:

1. Describe the calling placed upon the life of Moses by the Lord, including the circumstances involved. How important were the experiences in Moses’ early life for him to later become leader of Israel?

2. What is the request that Moses and Aaron continually petition to Pharaoh? What is the response of Pharaoh to them?

3. Summarize the significance of the judgments upon Egypt, and the reaction of Pharaoh to each of them. Which judgment do you find the most intriguing or compelling?

4. Why is the Passover considered so important in the Book of Exodus?

5. What is the pivotal moment in Exodus when the emphasis shifts from God wanting Pharaoh’s attention—to God wanting Israel’s attention? Describe it.

6. What do you believe is communicated by the Song of the Sea in Exodus 15?

7. Describe the scene of God manifesting Himself before Israel at Mount Sinai. Why do you think Israel later rebelled by worshipping the golden calf?

8. Which of the Ten Commandments do you consider to be the most important for the broad narrative of Exodus?

9. Why do you believe that God ultimately did not eliminate Israel for rebelling against Him by worshipping the golden calf?

10. What message(s) do you believe is communicated by the construction and placement of the Tabernacle?

11. What broad themes do you believe are communicated by the Book of Exodus? Why do you think Exodus has been such an influential text over the centuries?

12. What do you believe the Book of Exodus teaches us about our salvation in Messiah Yeshua?

13. What important lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Exodus?

14. Do you foresee any (significant) changes in Messianic theology as more engagement with the historical issues surrounding Exodus occurs? What are your thoughts?

REFLECTION ON EXODUS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Exodus:

BOOK OF LEVITICUS

Time period: formation of Israel as a nation called out by God

Author: Moses exclusively (Right); Moses, Joshua, and later editors (conservative-moderate); compiled traditions and mythologies (Left)

Location of author: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Babylon and/or Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel wandering in the desert (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish exiles returning from Babylon (Left)

People:

Moses, Aaron, the priests, Nadab, Abihu, Mishael, Elzaphan, Uzziel, Eleazar, Ithamar, Shelomith, Dibri (Danite)

Places:

Tent of Meeting, Mount Sinai, Desert of Sinai

Places mentioned:

Egypt, Canaan

Key Themes and Events:

Moses is given the instructions of: the burnt offering, the grain offering, the fellowship offering, the sin offering, the guilt offering / the priests are allowed to eat of the grain offering, the sin offering, the guilt offering / meat of the fellowship offering must be eaten on the day it is offered / Aaron and his sons are formally ordained priests of Israel / Nadab and Abihu are killed for offering strange fire before the Lord / Moses is given instructions regarding clean and unclean meats, the purification of a woman after childbirth, regulations about infectious skin diseases and how one is to be cleansed, uncleanness regarding seminal emission / the solemn Day of Atonement is established / it is prohibited for any person to consume blood / specific prohibitions regarding inappropriate sex are given, mandating that the Israelites not follow the practices of Egypt or Canaan / Moses is given: various laws defining Israel as different, punishments for specific crimes / specific rules defining the priesthood, what composes an unacceptable sacrifice / the appointed times of Israel are listed in the order they are to be remembered / a blasphemer is stoned to death / the Sabbath and jubilee years are to be remembered / Israel will prosper in the Promised Land if it is obedient to the Lord / laws regarding redemption of property are detailed

Key Scriptures: Leviticus 7:33-36; 10:1-3, 8-10; 11:44-45; 16:29-31; 17:10-12; 18:1-5, 21; 19:2; 20:7, 22-24; 23:1-2; 26:6-13; 27:34 / Worshipping a Holy God (1:1-17:16); Living a holy life (18:1-27:34)

Theological Summary: The third book of the Torah bears the Hebrew name Vayikra, meaning “and He called,” derived from its first verse, “Then the LORD ed to Moses and spoke to him from the tent of meeting.” Our English term Leviticus is derived from its Greek Septuagint title, Leuitikon, which means “pertaining to the Levites.” This carried over into the Latin Vulgate as Liber Leviticus. Some Jewish traditions, notably in the Mishnah,[1] refer to this text as torat kohanim, “the instruction of the priests,” or various derivatives.[2] The service of the priests in the life of Israel is undeniably a major feature of this book.[3]

The Book of Leviticus functions as part of a long narrative beginning in Exodus 25 with the giving of the Tabernacle instructions. Leviticus continues these instructions, with the only discontinuity occurring when laws regulating Israel proper are given.[4] As Leviticus begins, we see that the Tabernacle has been manufactured, and now Israel needs to know how to function with it present, becoming a special nation unto God.[5] The instruction contained in Leviticus makes up almost a third of the Torah, and spans about a year of the Israelites’ sojourn. Many commentators think that the giving of many of the commandments in Leviticus is interwoven with the proclamation of the Decalogue on Mount Sinai (Exodus chs. 19-20), and probably also the covenant ceremony (Exodus chs. 21-24).

The textual themes of Leviticus often concern the special duties of the Levites, as well as the service of worship at the Tabernacle (later to be applied to the Jerusalem Temple). It is absolutely accurate to conclude, “Leviticus consists almost entirely of law and ritual” (Levine, ABD).[6] However, even though the important role of the priests is detailed in Leviticus, this book is not solely concerned with priests. Leviticus ultimately concerns all of the people of Israel.[7]

In the Jewish theological tradition, Leviticus sits at the center and “heart” of the Torah. It is often used early to introduce Jewish children to the commandments of the Torah, so they can learn to be viable members of the religious community. Leviticus is fairly straightforward, and it is not difficult to inculcate its principles into one’s psyche. As Allis notes, “Leviticus is in no sense an esoteric book. The people were entitled and expected to know exactly what was required of them, and of their priests, in that service of the sanctuary which so deeply concerned every Israelite” (Allis, NBCR).[8]

Christian handling of Leviticus is often vastly different than compared to that of Judaism. Christian exegetes often have a very difficult time understanding the holiness code contained in Leviticus. Among theologians and teachers who examine Leviticus, there is often a great deal of allegorizing of the text.[9] Many only prefer to look at the Messianic symbolism of Leviticus, solely interpreting it in light of the “Christ event.” There is significant difficulty in reading Leviticus because it contains a great deal of commandments that many believe are no longer valid,[10] but Jewish New Testament studies are revealing more and more that Yeshua and the Apostles not only observed these things in the First Century, but upheld their validity as a standard to be continued. Commandments of considerable difficulty for Christians to understand are those of clean/unclean and pure/impure. They are often regarded as being archaic, not as simple elements of the obedience that God requires of His people.[11] In defense of Christian exegesis and commentary on Leviticus, though, many have made valid comparisons between the service of the priests and the service of ministers and pastors in local churches today.[12]

The Book of Leviticus deals with several kinds of regulations: worship, ceremonial cleanness, various moral laws, God’s appointed times, the Sabbatical year, and the year of Jubilee. Most of these commandments were delivered by God to Moses during the year that Ancient Israel encamped at Mount Sinai. How many were actually given while Moses was on the mountain, versus when he was in the Tent of Meeting, cannot be fully known.

The key theme of the Book of Leviticus is undeniably the holiness of God and how He wants His people to be separated out. He says, “I am the LORD who brought you up from the land of Egypt to be your God; thus you shall be holy, for I am holy” (11:45), a theme repeated throughout not only the Tanach, but also the Apostolic Scriptures. Leviticus may be divided into five principal sections: the sacrificial system (chs. 1-7), the inaugural service of the sanctuary (chs. 8-10), the laws of impurities (chs. 11-16), the holiness code (chs. 17-26), and the commutation of gifts of the sanctuary (ch. 27).[13]

We see in these subdivisions that God wants His people to be transferred into the realm of being clean and sacred. Leviticus requires perfect animals to be sacrificed (chs. 1-7), and that only priests without physical deformity can serve (chs. 8-10). Signs of physical blemish are listed, including: a woman’s discharge after birth (ch. 12); sores, burns, or certain types of baldness (chs. 13-14); a man’s seminal discharge (15:1-18). Jewish and Christian commentators today are not fully agreed as to whether such signs signify ritual impurity and/or spiritual impurity. However, before one can reenter the camp of Israel, certain types of sacrifice may need to be offered.

With Leviticus, we see that God begins to establish His theocracy through the people of Israel. Notable sacrifices among those categorized would include those for the Day of Atonement (ch. 16), a day of national mourning and repentance. Between the commandments given in Leviticus sit two major narratives: the death of Nadab and Abihu (10:12-19), and God imparting Israel the eye-for-eye principle (24:17-22). Interestingly, when considering these, and other points in Leviticus, some liberal commentators have considered the commandments in Leviticus to demonstrate some key salvation principles:

“Hebrew law is Heilsgesetz, ‘sacred and saving law.’ Heilsgesetz in the OT not only records and is the revelation of a divine order of society but also seeks to establish such a society in the commonwealth of Israel. The character and function of Leviticus then is summed up in this idea of Heilsgesetz” (IDB).[14]

Apparently, a critical part of God’s salvation demonstrated toward human beings is understanding His sacredness. Any reading of Leviticus cannot fail to consider this.

The authorship of Leviticus, as with all books of the Pentateuch, is a debated issue among conservative and liberal theologians. Ancient tradition, both Jewish and Christian, ascribes authorship of Leviticus to Moses.[15] It is notable that almost every chapter of the text includes the phrase “The LORD spoke to Moses,”[16] pointing to some kind of Mosaic involvement.

Conservative theologians today will generally accept principal Mosaic involvement in the composition of Leviticus, especially as “These are the commandments which the LORD commanded Moses for the sons of Israel at Mount Sinai” (27:34). Specific commandments are given by God to Moses in Leviticus (i.e., 1:1; 4:1; 6:1), a fact confirmed in the Apostolic Scriptures (Romans 10:5). Most conservatives will, however, concede that Moses probably did not compose Leviticus in its final form, and will allow for some pre- and/or post-exilic redaction of the text. Harrison notes that “Egyptian material…was revised from time to time by various generations of scribes,”[17] and it is possible that the Ancient Israelites may have employed similar techniques. What is perhaps more significant for us to consider, as Wenham indicates, is that “Leviticus claims throughout to record what God revealed to Moses; nowhere does it ever state that Moses wrote down what he heard” (ISBE).[18] Many Messianics would argue for exclusive Mosaic authorship of Leviticus, including his penning it with his own hand. They would have difficulty with the view that Moses may have given the information God relayed to him to scribes, or someone in his inner circle, to then write down. But even if Moses did not actually write down Leviticus with his own hand, he is still ultimately its human author.

In favor of its antiquity, conservatives point out that the strong theological assertion present in Leviticus is that it prepares Israel for living in the Promised Land. Arguments that are commonly made in favor of Leviticus being originally written around the time of the Exodus often stem from comparison with other literature in the Ancient Near East.[19] The law code present in Leviticus is not unique to the Second Millennium B.C.E.,[20] and the establishment of the covenant between Israel and its God was consistent with other agreements made in the Second Millennium B.C.E. as well.[21] Harris asserts, “God used Moses’ extensive legal background and knowledge of the common law of the East, and thus some of the laws are of the familiar case-type law” (EXP).[22] What makes Leviticus unique when compared to the other law codes of the Ancient Near East is how Israel’s God is so concerned for His people, rather than Israel being God’s “slaves.” The priestly nature of the text confirms this, incorporating the reality that they would be responsible for training the people, which itself is “a tradition that was established by the Sumerians….[and] the same can be said for ancient Egypt” (Harrison).[23]

Liberal theologians, in stark contrast to the conservative view of dating Leviticus back to the Second Millennium B.C.E, commonly ascribe authorship to P or the so-called Priestly writer (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis), often ignoring any conservative opinion.[24] Some apply P authorship to just chs. 1-16, and the holiness code of chs. 17-26 to a theoretical H.[25] Liberals assume a very late date for Leviticus’ composition, usually 500-450 B.C.E. after the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon, and often describe the material as “Josaianic,”[26] with much having originated during the reign of King Josiah. They will often argue that the P material is difficult to reconcile with other material in the Torah,[27] and critics of the JEDP hypothesis will sometimes claim that the so-called P source comes from an “Hegelian evolutionary philosophy” (Harrison, NIDB)[28] of thesis-antithesis-synthesis.

Liberal scholars will often claim that the complexities of Leviticus cannot be present in a document that dates from between 1500-1300 B.C.E., but this is challenged by many conservatives who argue that there were more complicated religious systems in place before this time. “Elaborate rituals and sacrificial systems are attested in the Ancient Near East long before the time of Moses. The normal critical view that these institutions are a late feature of Israelite religion is contrary to what is known about the religious practices in neighboring contemporary culture” (Wenham, ISBE).[29] Further critiques of the liberal hypothesis of dating Leviticus rather late is that no situation would have presented itself in Babylon requiring the separation of clean and unclean animals,[30] requiring this code to have previously existed, and also the fact that leprosy was widely known as a disease as far back as the Third Millennium B.C.E.,[31] likewise requiring some kind of pre-exilic regulation.

In recent days, the common liberal view of Leviticus has been changing in certain schools. The unity of the text in relationship to the entire Torah is being acknowledged. “Rhetorically, the material…is presented as the direct ‘word of God’ and thus makes a claim to absolute and unchallengeable authority” (Dozeman, New Interpreter’s Study Bible).[32] While P is sometimes described as “least difficult” (IDB)[33] of the Pentateuchal sources that liberals identify, liberal Jewish scholars are challenging its rather late dating, and are beginning to argue for a much earlier dating of P, leading just a few to consider some kind of Mosaic involvement, or at least considering a significant part of it pre-exilic.[34] Furthermore, literary examinations of the Torah are causing many to seriously question the JEDP hypothesis, and Leviticus is no exception.[35] Ironically, classical liberals often admit “Jesus canonized Leviticus once for all” (IDB),[36] especially with the Messiah’s emphasis on God’s love.

Few divergences exist among extant editions of the Hebrew Masoretic Text of Leviticus.[37] Fragments of Leviticus in paleo-Hebrew or Phoenician script were discovered at Qumran, even though they are often dated from the Second-First Centuries B.C.E.[38] Both the Samaritan Pentateuch and Greek Septuagint editions of Leviticus reflect various interpretative traditions in their renderings, allowing some theologians to conclude that the Hebrew source text behind these versions was older than today’s extant MT.[39] It is notable that the LXX includes some distinct Pharisaical interpretations of commandments. The Apostles’ usage of the LXX in their writings should make some of these halachic judgments authoritative for Messianics today, which often parallel the customs of mainline Judaism today, and not some of the small sectarian movements of the First Century.

In evangelical Christian theology, teachings on Leviticus often include the critical need to know about the New Testament emphases on loving one’s neighbor (19:18; cf. Matthew 5:43; 19:19; 22:39; Mark 12:31; Luke 10:27; Romans 13:9; Galatians 5:24; James 2:8). In an historical sense, evangelicals will often emphasize how one needs to understand the laws and customs found in Leviticus that Yeshua observed as a Jew living on Earth. Coupled with this is the fact that we need to understand the Levitical priesthood, and its relationship to Yeshua’s priesthood described in Hebrews.[40] The Tabernacle system is, to a degree, internalized in Believers’ hearts (2 Corinthians 6:16).[41] Evangelicals are right to emphasize the fact that when compared to ancient religions, a strong thrust of Leviticus’ message is on seeing one’s relationship to God restored.[42] The concern of God for the well-being of His people is thoroughly demonstrated in the detail of Leviticus.[43]

A great deal of Leviticus cannot be kept today without an operating Tabernacle or Temple, and Messianic Believers who often argue in favor of the continuance of all of the Torah usually fail to recognize that the work of Yeshua has set aside the Levitical sacrificial system (Hebrews 7:18) until the Millennium (Ezekiel chs. 40-44). This position, however, is not adhered to by most, who will instead often highlight only the parts of Leviticus that can be observed in the modern world, such as the kosher dietary laws or the appointed times. It should be noted, however, that while there is a broad consensus that the seventh-day Sabbath, appointed times, and dietary regulations should still be followed, there are diverse opinions and views about how these things should be followed. Some sectors of the Messianic movement lack a consideration for the style of halachah as demonstrated by Yeshua and the Apostles in First Century Judaism, instead preferring to reconstruct how they believe various commandments should be followed from the text, without considering any other Biblical tradition. However, more and more Messianics who study Leviticus every year are making profound connections to how its commandments are applied in the Apostolic Scriptures.

The holiness of God that He requires of His people is something that must be emphasized in today’s generation—and it is seen all throughout Leviticus. Many will simply label the last third of Leviticus (17:1-25:55) as the “holiness code,” with God emphasizing the blessings and consequences of obedience and disobedience, but holiness is certainly much more than just “do’s and don’ts.” God desires His people to be holy just like He is, and be separated out from the ways of the world. Many holiness movements in the past several centuries have used verses from Leviticus that focus on ethics and morality, such as the German Piety movement and Wesleyan movement of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, respectively. These movements, however, often did not understand Leviticus in its totality for Believers as is emphasized in much of today’s emerging Messianic movement.

With this in mind, the Messianic community today needs to understand that it has been endowed with a sacred trust from the Lord to convey the fullness of His holiness, demonstrated by not only commandments dealing with morality, but also how we conduct ourselves outwardly as His people. We are often quick to judge our Christian brethren for their lack of following many of Leviticus’ outward commandments, in spite of the fact that many sincere Christians remain true to God’s ethical commandments. As Wenham summarizes, “It seems fair to say that the NT only accepts the moral law of the OT but reiterates [its] basic theology” (ISBE).[44] Harris further remarks, “we can learn principles of atonement, prayer, faith, and grace from Israel’s ceremonies of justice in business, honor in home, truth in speech, and so forth, from Israel’s civil legislation” (EXP).[45] Building on foundations such as these, with Yeshua as the focus, should make it easier to emphasize other points seen in Leviticus such as Sabbath or kosher observance.

There are some notable weaknesses in the Messianic community concerning Leviticus, specifically with a lack of engagement with current conservative scholarship concerning its antiquity. Too much attention has probably been given to ultra Orthodox and/or Chassidic Jewish commentaries on Leviticus, at the expense of examining its historical setting. Another valid critique that could be given is that some Messianics base their interpretations of Torah commandments solely on what is seen in Leviticus, and they are not reconciled with their counterparts in Deuteronomy, which may add further details, to say nothing how they are applied elsewhere in the Bible. Furthermore, a lack of understanding some of Leviticus’ regulations in light of the Ancient Near East can lead to some misinterpretation with how they are applied in the Apostolic Scriptures.

Of all of the issues that we need to consider when reading Leviticus is the need for us to truly understand that this text is Heilsgesetz, or “sacred and saving law.” We need to understand how to focus on the missional aspects of Leviticus and how the Lord is concerned with the well-being of His people. We need to emphasize that God wants to have communion with His people, and be restored to them—themes ultimately embodied in His Son, Yeshua the Messiah.

Bibliography

Allis, Oswald T. “Leviticus,” in NBCR, pp 140-167.

Davies, G. Henton. “Leviticus,” in IDB, 3:117-122.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Leviticus,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 73-82.

Harris, R. Laird. “Leviticus,” in EXP, 2:501-654.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Exodus,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 518-613.

____________. “Leviticus,” in NIDB, 593.

Hayes, John H. “Leviticus,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 145-188.

Levine, Baruch A. “Leviticus, Book of,” in ABD, 4:311-320.

Milgrom, J. “Leviticus,” in IDBSup, pp 541-545.

Schwartz, Baruch J. “Leviticus,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 203-280.

Wenham, G.J. “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:110-117.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Leviticus

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 589.

[2] Baruch J. Schwartz, “Leviticus,” in Jewish Study Bible, 203.

[3] Baruch A. Levine, “Leviticus, Book of,” in ABD, 4:312.

[4] R.K. Harrison, “Leviticus,” in NIDB, 593.

[5] R. Laird Harris, “Leviticus,” in EXP, 2:501.

[6] Levine, “Leviticus, Book of,” in ABD, 4:312.

[7] G.J. Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:111; John H. Hayes, “Leviticus,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 145.

[8] Oswald T. Allis, “Leviticus,” in NBCR, 140.

[9] Dillard and Longman, 73.

[10] Harris, in EXP, 2:513-514.

[11] Ibid., 2:524-530.

[12] Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:111.

[13] J. Milgrom, “Leviticus,” in IDBSup, pp 541-545.

[14] G. Henton Davies, “Leviticus,” in IDB, 3:120.

[15] Harrison, “Leviticus,” in NIDB, 593.

[16] Allis, in NBCR, 140; Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:111.

[17] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 592.

[18] Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:112.

[19] Harris, in EXP, 2:503-504.

[20] Ibid., 2:515-516.

[21] Ibid., 2:517-518.

[22] Ibid., 2:519.

[23] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 591.

[24] Davies, “Leviticus,” in IDB, 3:117-118; Levine, “Leviticus, Book of,” in ABD, 4:319-320.

[25] Davies, “Leviticus,” in IDB, 3:119-120.

[26] Dillard and Longman, 74.

[27] Schwartz, “Leviticus,” in Jewish Study Bible, 205.

[28] Harrison, “Leviticus,” in NIDB, 593.

[29] Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:112.

[30] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 594.

[31] Ibid., pp 594-595.

[32] Dozeman, in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 146; cf. Milgrom, “Leviticus,” in IDBSup, 541; Dillard and Longman, 76.

[33] Davies, “Leviticus,” in IDB, 3:117.

[34] Wenham, “Levitucus,” in ISBE, 3:113.

[35] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 598.

[36] Davies, “Leviticus,” in IDB, 3:122.

[37] Milgrom, “Leviticus,” in IDBSup, 541.

[38] Levine, “Leviticus, Book of,” in ABD, 4:318.

[39] Ibid.

[40] Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:115; Dillard and Longman, pp 81-82.

[41] Cf. Allis, in NBCR, pp 141-412; Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:113.

[42] Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:115.

[43] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 603-612.

[44] Wenham, “Leviticus,” in ISBE, 3:117.

[45] Harris, in EXP, 2:519.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON LEVITICUS:

1. What is the central focus of the Book of Leviticus? Why do you think many people have difficulty understanding it?

2. What is the significance of the animal sacrifices when set against an Ancient Near Eastern backdrop? How do the animal sacrifices relate to our present condition with Yeshua as Messiah and Redeemer?

3. Why do you think Nadab and Abihu were killed?

4. What are the dietary laws to teach God’s people?

5. What is the significance of the Day of Atonement?

6. Which of the miscellaneous laws of Leviticus interests you the most? Which requires further clarification?

7. Which of the festivals in Leviticus 23 interests you the most? Which requires further clarification?

8. What does God say will happen to the Israelites if they obey Him? disobey Him?

9. What important lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Leviticus?

REFLECTION ON LEVITICUS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Leviticus:

BOOK OF NUMBERS

Approximate date: 1440-1400 B.C.E. (Right); 1300-1200 B.C.E. (conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: Israel in the wilderness

Author: Moses exclusively (Right); Moses, Joshua, and later editors (conservative-moderate); compiled traditions and mythologies (Left)

Location of author: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Babylon and/or Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel wandering in the desert (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish exiles returning from Babylon (Left)

People:

Moses, Aaron, Israelites, Ithamar, Eldad, Medad, Joshua, Miriam, Caleb, Korah (son of Izhar), Dathan, Abiram (sons of Eliab), On (son of Peleth), Eleazar, king of Edom, king of Arad, Sihon (king of Amorites), Jahaz, Balak (son of Zippor), Balaam (son of Beor), Midianites, Moabite women, Baal of Peor (deity), Phinehas, Zimri (son of Salu), Cozbi, daughters of Zelophehad (Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, Tirzah), tribal leaders of Israel (34:17-29)

People mentioned:

census members of Israel (ch. 1), census members of Levites (ch. 3), Kohathites, Gershonites, Merarites, tribal leaders of Israel presenting offerings (Nahshon, Nethanel, Eliab, Elizur, Shelumiel, Eliasaph, Elishama, Gamaliel, Abidan, Ahiezer, Pagiel, Ahira), twelve spies (Shammua, Shaphat, Caleb, Igal, Hoshea, Palti, Gaddiel, Gaddi, Ammiel, Sethur, Nahbi, Gevel), descendants of Anak, Amalekites, Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, Canaanites, Nephilim, Ammonites, Chemosh (god), Jacob, sons of Sheth, Amalek, Kenites, five kings of Midian (Evi, Rekem, Zur, Hur, Reba), Makir

Places:

Desert of Sinai, Tent of Meeting, Taberah, Kibroth Hattaavah, Hazeroth, Desert of Paran, Canaan, Negev, Desert of Zin, Rehob, Lebo Hamath, Hebron, Valley of Eshcol, Jordan, Horman, Kadesh, Meribah,[1] Edom, Mount Hor, Arad, Atharim, Red Sea, Oboth, Iye Abarim, Moab, Zered Valley, Arnon, Beer, Mattanah, Nahaliel, Bamoth, Pisgah, Heshbon, Ar, Dibon, Nophah, Medeba, Jazer, Bashan, Edrei, Jericho, Pethor, Kiriath Huzoth, Bamoth Baal, Zophim, Pisgah, Shittim, Gilead, Ataroth, Aroer, Atroth Shophan, Jogbehah, Beth Nimrah, Beth Haran, Elealeh, Kiriathaim, Kenath/Nobah, the journeys of Israel in the Exodus and wilderness (33:3-40), Salt Sea, Scorpion Pass, Hazar Addar, Azmon, Wadi of Egypt, Lebo Hamath, Zedad, Ziphon, Hazar Enan, Shepham, Riblah, Ain, Sea of Kinnereth, Levite towns, cities of refuge

Places mentioned:

Egypt, Zoan, Red Sea, Asshur, Eber

Key Themes and Events:

a census of Israelite men is taken / the Israelites are arranged in the camp in an orderly manner / a census of the Levites is taken / specific tasks are assigned to the Kohathites, Gershonites, Merarites / the purity of Israel is emphasized in: restitution for wrongs, a test for an unfaithful wife / the option of taking a Nazirite vow is given / the Aaronic Benediction is to be pronounced over Israel to bless them / specific offerings are given at the dedication of the Tabernacle, by specific men of each of the twelve tribes / instructions on how to specifically consecrate the Levites are given / the Israelites celebrate Passover, commemorating the second anniversary of the Exodus / special silver trumpets are to be blown by the priests of Israel / the Israelites depart from Sinai / fire from the Lord consumes some of the Israelites / the Israelites complain about eating only manna / God promises to send the Israelites vast quantities of quail / Eldad and Medad prophesy in the camp of Israel / Miriam and Aaron confront Moses because of his Cushite wife / Miriam becomes leprous / Moses sends twelve spies to survey the Land of Canaan / the spies bring back a negative report that spreads quickly through the camp of Israel / the Israelites complain about wanting to go back to Egypt / Moses and Aaron must entreat the Lord / the Lord decrees that those who tested Him in the wilderness will not see the Promised Land, except for Joshua and Caleb / Israelites try to enter in to the Promised Land and are beaten back by Amalekites and Canaanites / supplementary offerings to be given before the Lord, when entering the Promised Land, are detailed / offerings for unintentional sins are defined / a Sabbath-breaker is put to death (for having collected wood) / the Israelites are to put tassels on their garments / Korah and a group of followers challenge Moses’ authority, and they are swallowed up by the ground / immediate atonement is made before too many Israelites are killed in a plague / Aaron’s staff buds and produces almonds / the Levites are charged with performing proper duties before the Tabernacle / specific offerings and welfare are defined for the Levites and their families / special laws of cleansing, involving the ashes of a red heifer, are detailed / Miriam dies at Kadesh / the Israelites complain for lack of water, and Moses strikes a rock (Meribah) / the king of Edom denies the Israelites passage through his country / Aaron dies at Mount Hor / the Israelites destroy Arad / the Israelites complain for having to wander, and poisonous snakes are sent among the people, killing many / Israelites are healed by looking at a bronze snake on a pole / the Israelites journey to Moab / the Israelites defeat King Sihon (Amorites) and King Og (Bashan) in battle / Balak summons Balaam to curse Israel / Balaam’s donkey speaks to him / Balaam is unable to curse Israel, and instead he issues four oracles of blessing / Israelite men are seduced by Moabite women / Phinehas kills two offenders on the spot, in front of the Tent of Meeting / a plague is stopped due to Phinehas’ action / a second census of the Israelites is taken / the daughters of Zelophehad receive the right to inherit their father’s property / Joshua is designated as Moses’ successor / specific offerings to be presented before the Lord daily, on the Sabbath and during festival times, are listed / instructions regarding oath taking and vows are detailed / the Lord commands Moses to wipe out the Midianites / the spoils from the battle with the Midianites are divided / the Reubenites and Gadites request an inheritance outside the Promised Land / the stages in Israel’s wilderness journey are listed (33:3-40) / the borders of the Promised Land are detailed / tribal leaders are chosen for Israel / towns for the Levites and cities of refuge are to be established / Zelophehad’s daughters were told to marry with their tribe (Manasseh) for property not to be transferred between tribes

Key Scriptures: Numbers 5:5-7; 6:22-27; 8:23-26; 9:14, 23; 10:35-36; 11:4-9, 18-20, 29-33; 12:6-8; 13:27-28, 30-33; 14:1-3, 10-19, 20-23; 16:28-35; 22:2-3, 10-12, 26-28; 23:7-12, 21-24; 24:5-9, 17-19; 25:6-8; 32:13-15; 33:51-52, 55-56; 34:13-15; 35:29-34 / Worshipping a holy God (1:1-17:16); Living a holy life (18:1-27:34)

Theological Summary: The Hebrew title for the fourth book of the Torah is Bamidbar, meaning either “in the wilderness” or “in the desert” (1:1). Another Jewish designation in antiquity derived from 1:1 was V’ydaber or “and He spoke,” known to early Church figures such as Jerome and Epiphanaus.[2] Other titles included omesh happikkudim or “the ‘fifth’ of the census,” indicating that this text composed one-fifth of the Torah.[3] The Septuagint translation applied the Greek name Arithmoi to the text, derived from “according to the number of their names” (1:26, LXE). “This Greek name reflects an earlier Hebrew name for the book, well-attested in classical rabbinic sources, from a period when books of the Torah were named thematically rather than after one of their initial words”[4] (Jewish Study Bible), and was followed as Numeri in the Latin Vulgate. Many evangelical Christians have suggested that Bamidbar is a better title—effectively making the English title Wilderness or Desert—as it avoids the controversy of the debates surrounding Biblical numbering and instead focuses on the events that took place.[5]

The Book of Numbers may be easily divided into three broad sections: (1) Israel at Sinai, preparing to depart for the Promised Land (1:1-10:10); (2) Israel at Kadesh, delayed because of its rebellion (13:1-20:13); (3) Israel at the plains of Moab, anticipating conquest of the Promised Land (22:2-32:42). Numbers probably covers the broadest scope of the Torah (excluding Genesis), as it completes the 38-year journey of the Israelites wandering in the wilderness.

Important features appearing in Numbers include God delivering the instructions on how the Tabernacle was to be transported (chs. 1-10). Within this selection appears specific regulations for the Levites (chs. 3-4, 7-8), the banishment of those who are extremely impure (5:1-4), and how to deal with a defiled Nazirite (6:1-21). Further features detail the rebellion of the Israelites and their refusal to fully take the Land of Canaan (ch. 14), and the condemnation of those who would have to die in the wilderness because of their disbelief. Some of the most important chapters in Numbers are ch. 6, which includes the giving of the Aaronic Benediction, and ch. 9, the instructions concerning how Israel was to keep Passover.

Throughout Numbers, we see that God demonstrates a strong willingness to live with the Israelites, communicating to them through Moses (7:89). The Lord is a guide for the people (9:15-23), but Israel rebels against Him (ch. 15), and God shows a desire not to judge them all at first (16:20-22). God demonstrates a great deal of patience toward Israel, but ultimately in the defining part of the text (chs. 13-14) He must raise up a new generation of Israelites to replace the rebellious old generation.

There is a renewed interest today in both Judaism and Christianity to examine Numbers for encouraging a strong faith in God. We see the failure of Ancient Israel to obey or trust in Him, yet God is not remiss in punishing His own people, including Moses (ch. 20). God tests His people with false prophets such as Balaam (chs. 22-24), yet is able to issue a blessing through him (chs. 23-24). The Lord hates idolatry and sexual immorality (ch. 25). Many evangelical Christians are keen to admit that there has been a lack of interest among ministers to appropriate these important themes in preaching from Numbers, and desire to see this change.[6] Ultimately, we may consider Numbers to be a prime example of God’s ongoing Heilsgeschichte or salvation history.[7]

Some substantial historical issues are presented in Numbers with the census of Israel’s population, particularly in 1:46: “all the numbered men were 603,550.” Many conservative scholars take this number at face value, and extrapolate that there were as many as 2-3 million involved in the Exodus. Other conservatives have suggested that the Pentateuch uses terms such as “thousands” or “hundreds” more loosely than they would be used today, and offer some alternative views. They suggest that “a total population of two to three million…hardly seems appropriate” (ISBE).[8] While reducing Israel’s population, a lesser view still asserts that God’s promises to Abraham to multiply his seed was being fulfilled. The default position regarding Numbers 1:46 adhered to by many seems to be that 600,000 was more or less the exact population.[9]

Those who think that the numbering of 603,550 in Numbers 1:46 is something else will claim that the Hebrew term elef or “thousand,” can also mean “squad” when considering its Ugaritic and other Semitic cognates.[10] This could possibly mean that what is being referred to is 603 squads of 550, placing Israel’s fighting force at around 331,650, although some would estimate it being a bit on the lower end at around 35,000.[11] If the total population of Ancient Israel were only somewhere in the 20,000-35,000 range, it could have difficulties as 22,273 firstborn males are specifically described in 3:43, although this itself could mean 22 squads/groups of 273 firstborn, actually being somewhere around 6,006. Another alternative to consider is that the term elef was easily confused with alluf or “captain” in ancient times, so the 62,700 fighting men of Dan mentioned (1:39) could equate to being 60 captains and 2,700 men.[12] Ultimately, the debate over the actual numbers of Ancient Israel is in recognizing that the census techniques of the ancients are probably not those of today, and we have to allow for the possibility of things being a bit different.

If the census in Numbers is not as “exact” as we may want it to be, then the obvious conclusion drawn is that there may have not been “millions” of Israelites involved in the Exodus from Egypt. Many conservatives do adhere to an exact literal numbering, concluding, “if they fanned out with their flocks over a wide area, they could sustain themselves as did the large Nabatean kingdom in the same area in Roman times” (Harris, NIDB).[13] In response to this, other conservative interpreters may assert, “It is hard to imagine the difficulties attendant upon sustaining two to three million people living in the wilderness for forty years: food, sanitation, living space, morale” (ISBE).[14]

If we do see some kind of representative census in Numbers, then it would suggest that rather than there being 2-3 million Israelites involved in the Exodus, that there were likely only several hundred thousand, but no less than 100,000. Harrison makes the imperative point, “An understanding of the contemporary situation with reference to the population of Canaan is instructive in this respect, for it is evident from sources such as the Tell el-Amarna tablets, as well as from the excavation of Canaanite cities of the thirteenth century B.C., that the overall population of the Promised Land was itself well below three million people.”[15] Considering that the Torah indicates that the population of the Israelites was less than that of the Canaanites (Exodus 23:29; Deuteronomy 7:7, 17, 22), then we can safely assume that a different numbering system was used in Numbers than how we would conduct a census in the Twenty-First Century.[16]

The Book of Numbers and its various accountings divide theologians among three distinct groups: (1) those who think that the number totals cannot be trusted and are over exaggerated; (2) those who think that the numbers are not as exact as they would have to be today, and are possibly representative in some places, but are certainly not as low as one thousand representing “one”; (3) those who think that the numbers are exact, with no exception. Admittedly, many get confused and prefer to assert that we cannot know for certain how the Israelites took a tally of their population groups.[17]

If one falls into a conservative handling of the text, then the options that we have at our disposal are #2 and #3, as we would choose to consider the Israelites at the very least to number in the several hundred thousand. But ultimately, there may be no satisfactory answer to these questions with the current extant data we have on the Ancient Near East. It should not cause us to think that a miniscule amount of people were involved in the Exodus. These views do, however, challenge many Messianics who have been taught that there are only “exact numbers” in Scripture, and things may not be as “exact” as they may want them to be considering their ancient context.

Regarding the composition of Numbers, conservatives do assert principal Mosaic authorship, based on statements that indicate Moses’ writing activity (33:1-2), also based on the strong assumption of the literary unity of the Torah.[18] In this, we see that there are varied commandments given to Moses and Aaron (1:1; 3:44; 6:1; 8:1, et. al.). “According to the book the original impetus for the recording of much of the material was from Moses. It indicates numerous times that Moses received instructions from God” (ISBE).[19] However, we should not conclude exclusive Mosaic authorship of Numbers. While Moses recorded the names of the various places Israel journeyed (33:2), Numbers is likely some combination of Mosaic and scribal writing.[20]

There are some signs of redaction in Numbers and additions by Israel’s historians. Conservatives will often assert that Numbers “is essentially Mosaic but includes source material and glosses” (Dillard and Longman).[21] Perhaps the most significant example of a post-Mosaic addition to the Torah appears in 12:3: “Now the man Moses was very humble, more than any man who was on the face of the earth.” Conservatives have always pointed out that if Moses were indeed the most humble human being who ever lived—he could have never written this about himself! Harrison summarizes,

“In light of what is known about processes of scribal revision in Egypt and certain other areas of the ancient Near East, there appears to be no difficulty whatever in assuming that the reference in Numbers 12:3 concerning the modesty of Moses constitutes an addition by a later hand, quite possibly either that of Joshua or Samuel.”[22]

Another redaction may include the mention of the “Book of the Wars of the LORD” (21:14), “a genuine Pentateuchal source” (Harrison),[23] or a later source that a scribe added information from. Even though all conservatives strongly assert principal Mosaic involvement in the composition of Numbers, other textual additions would have included the census lists,[24] or possibly other slight additions during the time of the Israelite monarchy or via the authorization of Ezra the Priest after the Babylonian exile.[25] The general dating of Numbers would be tied to one’s timing of the Exodus, which for conservatives would fall between the Fifteenth or Thirteenth Centuries B.C.E. (see Exodus entry for a summary of the dating issues). Admittedly, thinking that anybody but Moses was involved in the composition of Numbers is difficult for many Messianics to acknowledge, even though it seems quite certain.

Affirming the antiquity of the Book of Numbers, conservative scholars such as Harrison and Kitchen point out that the arrangement of the Israelites around the Tabernacle in Numbers 2:2 conforms to the strategic layout of the Egyptian army during the reign of Ramses II.[26] Certainly, if Moses had been a member of the Egyptian royal house, and as Stephen attests, “a man of power in words and deeds” (Acts 7:22), he could have learned Egyptian military strategy and incorporated it in his leading Israel. Furthermore, we see that the use of silver trumpets (10:1-2) was common in Egyptian ceremonies of the Thirteenth Century.[27]

In stark contrast to conservative theologians who affirm prime Mosaic involvement in the composition of Numbers, liberal theologians would argue for the final form of the text existing only after the Jewish exile to Babylon in 587 B.C.E., and possibly even that it foreshadows the return of the Jews to the Land of Israel in 539 B.C.E. Liberals commonly argue that the story depicted in Numbers would have strong significance for the exiles returning from Babylon, but strongly doubt its historicity. IDB indicates, “It is the large amount of purely statistical material incorporated in Numbers which makes much of it seem tedious to the modern reader…Some of it seems purely idealistic and unhistorical.”[28] Liberals will frequently claim that the events in Numbers seem too strange to have actually occurred, such as Balaam’s donkey talking (ch. 22), and instead frequently suggest that all that is necessary is some kind of literary explanation for the journeys of Israel. Any kind of unity in Numbers is regarded as being entirely “artificial” (IDB).[29]

In the liberal scheme of Numbers’ composition, the bulk of the material is attributed to the P source or so-called Priestly writer, with incorporated additions by J and E,[30] and likely also D[31] (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis). While conservatives frequently respond to liberal critiques with literary explanations of Numbers’ supposed discrepancies, liberals are right to point out that there are source materials present in the text. The Book of Numbers cannot be read with any naiveté,[32] and even a conservative reading requires a fair bit of critical examination. Even though we might disagree with liberal presuppositions surrounding Numbers, liberals will validly point out that its “OT story is intended to be read as history and not as myth. The ancient Hebrew mind was not mythopoeic” (IDB),[33] affirming some kind of theological integrity for the book.

From a textual point of view, the Hebrew Masoretic Text of Numbers is fairly secure, with few disputations or major variances from the Samaritan Pentateuch or Greek Septuagint. This does not mean that the SP and LXX do not reflect some interpretations of commandments, but these are relatively minor. The text of Numbers has not been preserved as well as Leviticus,[34] likely because of the large accountings of people. But if there are any major differences in the accountings of people, they are ancient problems that go back too far in history to fix, and answers to these problems must be reconciled historically. “The very large numbers in the two census lists (Num 1-4; 26) do not betray corruption of numbers. Thus those who resort to the solution of the problem of the large numbers by suggesting textual corruption have to assume that such problems are very ancient” (Allen, EXP).[35]

The message that Numbers communicates to us today is primarily that God is merciful, yet He is also just. “Of all of God’s attributes, it is on his ḥesed that Moses bases his plea that God not destroy Israel (14:18-20). The word ḥesed stands for God’s constancy, his fidelity to his covenant with Israel” (Milgrom, ABD).[36] The Lord does not leave Israel in the wilderness, but does wait for a proper generation to be raised up which can accomplish His tasks. He provides food for His people with the manna (ch. 11), but also strikes Miriam, Moses’ sister, with leprosy (ch. 12), and punishes Moses for striking the rock (ch. 20).

Throughout Numbers, we see God demonstrating His presence, discipline, and holiness.[37] The Book of Numbers “forms an essential link in that forward-directedness from Adam to Jesus” (Allen, EXP).[38] A challenge that anyone who really wants to study Numbers often faces is that he or she must have great patience. Allen points out, “In a day marked by pop art, quick fixes, and fast foods, the Book of Numbers is particularly troublesome. It simply does not appeal to the person who is unwilling to invest time and energy in the study of Scripture” (EXP),[39] and we certainly see the lack of patience in the Israelites’ behavior in Numbers. At the end of Numbers, the people of Israel are ready and prepared to enter into the Promised Land. “It is on this note of expectant hope that the book ends. Note that the hope never turns into certainty. That is, the hope of the second generation is an untried hope. This generation too will face severe threats to its faith (see Joshua), and it remains to be seen how they will respond” (Dillard and Longman).[40] To an extent, every generation of Believers should place themselves into the situation of Numbers.[41]

The current Messianic handling of Numbers is not that dissimilar from its handling of Leviticus. Like Leviticus, many of the commandments in Numbers cannot be presently observed without a working Tabernacle or Temple. But whereas Leviticus comprises mostly a code of conduct, Numbers does ask us some serious questions about the relationship of God toward His people. When we see Moses strike the rock against God’s explicit command, there are consequences that he must face (20:11-12). A few Messianics, who may have made Moses into some kind of demagogue, are confronted with the reality that he was human and that he did sin.

Perhaps more significant for the emerging Messianic movement is the fact that the Book of Numbers challenges us to become a self-critical movement that is not afraid to admit some of its problems. Certainly if we cannot identify with some of the grumbling attitudes of the Ancient Israelites, then are we to admit that we are instead “perfect”? Surely not. Furthermore, when we consider the numerical accounts in the text, we need to be willing to admit that there are things in the Torah that are not as “black and white” as we may want them to be, such as knowing how many people were exactly involved in the Exodus. We have to remember that there was probably a different numbering system in place in 1400-1200 B.C.E. that is largely foreign to our Twenty-First Century computer mindset.

With these things said, there is a large need for today’s Messianic community to engage more with conservative-critical scholarship of Numbers that considers the historical framework of the Ancient Near East. Unfortunately, as with too much of the Tanach, sectors of the Messianic movement often give credence to ultra Orthodox and Chassidic Jewish views of Numbers, at the expense of its legitimate historicity. With the message of Numbers in view, will it take a long time for a generation of Messianic Believers to be raised up to be used effectively for the Lord? We may not know. But it does teach us that we are to endure through whatever trials may take place. As it concerns our studies of Numbers, it should include how we react properly to criticisms of the text, and whether or not we can involve ourselves with the larger theological conversations going on.

Bibliography

Allen, Ronald B. “Numbers,” in EXP, 2:657-1008.

Carpenter, E.E. “Numbers, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:561-567.

Dentan, R.C. “Numbers, Book of,” in IDB, 3:567-571.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Numbers,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 83-90.

Fox, Nili S. “Numbers,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 281-355.

Harris, R. Laird. “Numbers, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 713-714.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Numbers,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 614-634.

Levine, B.A. “Numbers, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 631-635.

Milgrom, Jacob. “Numbers, Book of,” in ABD, 4:1146-1155.

Olson, Dennis T. “Numbers,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 189-240.

Thompson, J.A. “Numbers,” in NBCR, pp 168-200.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Numbers

[1] Cf. Exodus 17:6.

[2] R.C. Dentan, “Numbers, Book of,” in IDB, 3:567; cf. Ronald B. Allen, “Numbers,” in EXP, 2:662.

[3] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 614; B.A. Levine, “Numbers, Book of,” IDBSup, 631; Jacob Milgrom, “Numbers, Book of,” in ABD, 4:1146.

[4] Nili S. Fox, “Numbers,” in Jewish Study Bible, 281.

[5] J.A. Thompson, “Numbers,” in NBCR, 168; E.E. Carpenter, “Numbers, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:561.

[6] Allen, in EXP, 2:660.

[7] Ibid., 2:657.

[8] Carpenter, “Numbers, Book of,” ISBE, 3:565.

[9] Allen, in EXP, 2:686-691.

[10] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 632-633; Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner, eds., The Hebrew & Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, 2 vols. (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 2001), 1:59-60.

[11] R. Laird Harris, “Numbers, Book of,” in NIDB, 713; Allen, in EXP, 2:682-683.

[12] J.A. Thompson, “Numbers,” in NBCR, 169.

[13] Harris, “Numbers, Book of,” in NIDB, 714; cf. Allen, EXP, 2:680-681.

[14] Carpenter, “Numbers, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:565.

[15] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 632.

[16] For a further review, consult the FAQ on the TNN website “Exodus, numbers of.”

[17] Garrett, Archaeological Study Bible, 197.

[18] Carpenter, “Numbers, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:562; Allen, EXP, 2:663-668.

[19] Carpenter, “Numbers, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:562.

[20] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 617.

[21] Dillard and Longman, 84.

[22] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 616.

[23] Ibid.

[24] Ibid., pp 618-619.

[25] Thompson, in NBCR, 168; Carpenter, “Numbers, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:562.

[26] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 622-623.

[27] Ibid., 623.

[28] Dentan, “Numbers, Book of,” in IDB, 3:570.

[29] Ibid., 3:568.

[30] Dentan, “Numbers, Book of,” in IDB, 3:568; Thompson, in NBCR, pp 168-169; Levine, “Numbers, Book of,” in IDBSup, 631-632; Carpenter, “Numbers, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:562-563; Milgrom, “Numbers, Book of,” in ABD; 4:1148-1150; Fox, in Jewish Study Bible, 281.

[31] Dentan, “Numbers, Book of,” in IDB, 3:567.

[32] Allen, in EXP, 2:663.

[33] Dentan, in IDB, 3:571.

[34] Harrison, Introduction to Old Testament, 634.

[35] Allen, in EXP, 2:661.

[36] Milgrom, “Numbers, Book of,” in ABD, 4:1151.

[37] Thompson, in NBCR, 170.

[38] Allen, in EXP, 2:657.

[39] Ibid., 2:658.

[40] Dillard and Longman, 89.

[41] Ibid., 90.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON NUMBERS:

1. Do you think the title of “Numbers” accurately captures the theme of the book? Why or why not?

2. What do you believe is the significance of the census of Israel? Summarize the debate concerning the large numbers.

3. What was the result of the negative report brought back from the spies who surveyed Canaan?

4. What do you believe is the significance of Korah’s rebellion? Summarize.

5. What is the symbolism of the bronze snake being lifted up to heal the people (Numbers 21:8-9; cf. John 3:14-15)?

6. Which of Balaam’s oracles pronounced upon Israel do you consider to be the most important?

7. How did Balak ultimately get the Israelites to be cursed?

8. What important lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Numbers?

REFLECTION ON NUMBERS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Numbers:

BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY

Approximate date: 1440-1400 B.C.E. (Right); 1300-1200 B.C.E. (conservative-moderate); before 623 B.C.E. and/or 500s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: Israel preparing to enter into the Promised Land

Author: Moses exclusively (Right); Moses, Joshua, and later editors (conservative-moderate); a pious teacher or priest in Jerusalem, compiled traditions and mythologies (Left)

Location of author: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Jerusalem, Babylon, and/or Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel preparing to enter the Promised Land (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish religious leaders during reign of King Josiah and/or Jewish exiles returning from Babylon (Left)

People:

Moses, Israelites, Caleb (son of Jephunneh), Joshua (son of Nun)

People mentioned:

Sihon, Amorites, Og, Reubenites, Gadites, Canaanites, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Amalekites, descendants of Esau, Moabites, descendants of Lot, Emites, Anakites, Rephaites, Horites, Ammonites, Zamzummites, Avvites, Caphtorites, Sidonians, Jair, Geshurites, Maacathites, Makir, Pharaoh, Hittites, Gergashites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites, Jebusites, Aaron, Jaakanites, Eleazar, Egyptian army, Dathan, Abiram, sons of Eliab, Edomite(s), Egyptians

Places:

Jordan, Arabah, Suph, Paran, Tophel, Laban, Dizahab, Moab, Pisgah, cities of refuge (Bezer, Ramoth, Golan), Mount Gerizim, Mount Ebal, Mount Nebo

Places mentioned:

Horeb, Kadesh Barnea, Mount Seir road, Heshbon, Edrei, Bashan, Ashtaroth, Negev, Lebanon, Euphrates, Valley of Eshcol, Egypt, Seir, Hormah, Red Sea, Elath, Ezion Geber, Moab, Ar, Zered Valley, Gaza, Caphtor, Arnon Gorge, desert of Kedemoth, Jahaz, Aroer, Gilead, Jabbok, Mount Hermon (Sirion, Senir), Salecah, Rabbah, Argob, Havvoth Jair, Kinnereth, Salt Sea, Baal Peor, Massah, Taberah, Kibroth Hattavah, Moserah, Gudgodah, Jotbathah, Gilgal, Aram Naharaim, Sodom, Gomorrah, Desert of Zin

Key Themes and Events:

Moses speaks before the assembly of Israel, recalling: the appointment of leaders, the mission of the twelve spies, and the arrogance of certain Israelites going into the Promised Land against the Lord’s command / the Israelites’ wanderings in the desert are summarized / the defeat of King Sihon and King Og is remembered / the Reubenites’ and Gadites’ inheritance outside of Canaan is remembered / Moses is allowed to look into the Promised Land from a mountain peak / Joshua is designated Moses’ successor / the Instruction of God is repeated to Israel, as they prepare to go into the Promised Land / the Israelites are admonished not to commit idolatry, lest they be cast out of the Promised Land / there is a promise for restoration should Israel fall into idolatry, and later repent / the Lord is uplifted as a great and powerful God for Israel / three cities are designated as places of refuge (Bezer, Ramoth, Golan) / Moses repeats the Ten Commandments to the assembly of Israel / Israel’s requirement to hear and obey[1] the Lord, loving Him, is emphasized / the Israelites are told to displace and destroy the current inhabitants of Canaan / Israel is told to obey the Lord, and not forget His faithfulness demonstrated during the wilderness sojourn / Israel will dispossess the Promised Land because of the sin of its current inhabitants / Moses recounts the incident of Israel worshipping the golden calf / Moses recalls the Ten Commandments God ordered him to chisel himself / the Israelites are commanded to circumcise their hearts / love and obedience to God go together, as the Exodus is recalled / a designated place within the Promised Land is where sacrifices are to be made / eating the blood of animals is prohibited / false prophets who speak presumptuously are to be executed / clean and unclean meats are listed / a tenth of Israel’s produce is to be offered as a tithe / every seven years debts are to be canceled / indentured servants are to be released after six years of service / firstborn of all animals are not to be put to (normal) work / three pilgrimage feasts are specified: Passover, Feast of Weeks, Tabernacles / judges and officials are to be appointed in each Israelite town / syncretism among the people of Israel is not to be tolerated / the decisions and rulings of Israel’s religious leaders are to be respected / kings of Israel are to write out a copy of the law they are expected to uphold / proper provisions are to be made for the Levites / witchcraft and divination are prohibited, mandating the death penalty / God will hold Israel accountable for not listening to His prophets, but those who speak presumptuously are to be ignored / cities of refuge are to be established for those who commit unintentional manslaughter / proper witnesses are to be consulted when a person stands accused of a crime / the Israelites are not to be afraid when going to war, but provisions are to be made for the men (the newly married and fearful) / the Lord targets specific groups to which peace in war cannot be offered, due to their intense sin / atonement is to be presented for an unsolved murder / regulations are given regarding women taken in battle, whom Israelite males may desire to marry / firstborn sons must receive inheritance, even if the father has had two wives / rebellious children are to be put to death / those executed for high crimes are to be buried on the same day / specific laws respecting Creation are given / marriage violations and their penalties are given / specific exclusions from the assembly of Israel are defined / uncleanness in the camp of Israel is defined / miscellaneous laws further defining Israel’s holiness are listed / regulations regarding a tithe of firstfruits are listed / Israel is to follow God’s instructions so He can make them great, and they can be holy / Israel is to agree to a series of blessings and curses at Mounts Ebal and Gerizim / specific curses will be incurred by Israel if they fail to obey the Lord / Moses calls Israel to remember the covenant that the Lord has made with them, leading them out of Egypt and performing signs before them / Moses warns of the severities of disobedience to the Lord / prosperity and restoration are available for those who repent and turn toward the Lord / God’s instruction is not intended to be difficult to keep / the Law is to be read every seven years at the Feast of Tabernacles / Israel’s future rebellion against God is predicted / Moses recites a specific song for Israel, which attests to the Lord as its Rock and Savior / the Lord tells Moses to go up to Mount Nebo to die, being able to see the Promised Land from a distance / Moses pronounces blessings over each of the tribes of Israel / Moses dies on Mount Nebo and is buried by the Lord / Joshua prepares to lead the Israelites into their destiny

Key Scriptures: Deuteronomy 1:10-11; 2:14; 4:1-2, 5-8, 26-31; 6:1-3, 4-9; 7:7-10, 16; 9:4-5; 10:12-13, 16; 11:16-21, 26-28; 12:4-7, 29-31; 16:21; 17:2-7, 10-12; 19:15; 26:16-19; 27:9-10, 26; 28:9-10; 30:1-6, 11-14; 31:10-13, 16-18; 32:3-4, 36-39 / What God has done for Israel: Moses’ First Address (1:1-4:43); Principles for Godly Living: Moses’ Second Address (4:44-28:68); A Call for Commitment to God: Moses’ Third Address (29:1-30:20); The Change in Leadership: Moses’ Last Days (31:1-34:12)

Theological Summary: No book of the Torah or Pentateuch is more concise, or more frequently consulted as a single reference, than the Book of Deuteronomy. The Hebrew name of this text is Devarim, meaning “words,” derived from its opening sentence: “These are the words which Moses spoke to all Israel” (1:1). This calls the reader to heed the words that Moses spoke.[2] Another Jewish title seen in some works is sefer tokchanot or “Book of Admonitions.”[3]

Our English term Deuteronomy is derived from its Greek Septuagint designation of Deuteronomium, literally meaning “second law.” This meaning is derived from 17:18 where a king of Israel is told he “shall write for himself a copy of this law.” The Hebrew of this is mishneh ha’Torah, as mishneh means “double, copy, second” (BDB).[4] The LXX rendered this as deuteronomion. Many Christian scholars regard this as a mistranslation,[5] even though there are many Jewish traditions that refer to the fifth book of the Pentateuch as Mishneh Torah, meaning “repetition of the Torah” (ABD),[6] and thus Deuteronomy would not be an invalid term, being a reflection of this view.

“[T]he error on which the English title Deuteronomy rests is not serious, as Deuteronomy is in a very true sense a repetition of the law” (Edwards and Harrison, ISBE).[7] The Book of Deuteronomy does not just repeat the commands of the Torah, but it also sets forward the responsibilities of God’s people in light of a treaty-covenant.[8] “Deuteronomy…is a deeply traditional text that, more than any other book of the Bible, provides the foundation of Judaism” (Jewish Study Bible).[9] The Shema and ritual objects like the mezuzah, tefillin, and tzit-tzit all find their basis in Deuteronomy.[10] For Believers in Yeshua, it is notable that Deuteronomy is quoted more than any other book of the Torah in the Apostolic Scriptures.

The events of Deuteronomy occur as the Israelites are on the plains of Moab, preparing to enter into the Promised Land (1:5; cf. Numbers 36:33). Moses is handing the leadership to Joshua (34:9; cf. Joshua 1:1-2), who was yet unproven as the newly designated leader.[11] Moses is recalling what has happened to Israel since the Exodus, and delivers a series of speeches likely given over just a few days. Interestingly enough, this “has possible antecedents in the Egyptian method of diffusing moral teaching. Most of the Egyptian wisdom instructions were dressed in the form of testaments of kings and viziers to their successors….This technique may have exerted its influence on Israel’s literature” (ABD).[12]

The audience of Deuteronomy is an entirely new generation of Israelites who needed to be admonished about obeying the Lord.[13] The forty years of required wandering had been completed, with all having died out except Joshua and Caleb. “In some respects Deuteronomy is…‘the last will and testament of Moses’” (Dillard and Longman).[14] Deuteronomy does expound upon the instruction that God has given the people thusfar, but in some distinct instances changes and/or modifies it for their entry into the Promised Land.[15] “The word contains the essentials of Leviticus rewritten in such a manner as to make the more priestly and esoteric material amenable to the populace, and in this sense Deuteronomy can be said to comprise a popular version of the Levitical law, thereby approximating to something like an ‘Everyman’s Torah’” (Harrison).[16]

The text of Deuteronomy is divided into five major parts. The first part is (1) a prologue introducing Moses’ speech (1:1-4:43). This is followed by (2) comments preparing Israel to receive God’s covenant law (3:33-5:5), including a summarization of the Ten Commandments (5:5-21). Additional admonitions given include understanding the importance of learning God’s commandments (6:1-25), and how Israel has become God’s people because of His gracious choice (7:1-26). This is followed by a series of warnings about disobedience (8:1-20), and a reminder for Israel to consider past failures (9:1-29). The (3) largest section of Deuteronomy is a repetition of the law code that the people are to follow (12:1-26:15). The story closes with (4) a listing of blessings and curses that are agreed upon by Israel at Mounts Ebal and Gerizim (26:16-30:20), and (5) an epilogue describing Moses’ death (31:1-34:12).

The authorship of Deuteronomy was unanimously accepted to be Moses by both Jewish and Christian scholarship until the rise of German higher criticism in the Nineteenth Century. Deuteronomy itself attests Mosaic authorship (1:1, 5; 31:24-25), and the Tanach further testifies to Mosaic authorship of the legislation found in the text (Joshua 1:7-8; 23:6; 1 Kings 2:3; 8:53; Nehemiah 8:1; Malachi 4:4). The New Testament likewise unanimously affirms principal Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy, including various testimonies of how certain commandments or admonitions were given by him to Israel. These are all found in the words of Yeshua (Matthew 19:7-8; Mark 10:3-5; cf. Deuteronomy 24:1), Peter (Acts 2:22-23; cf. Deuteronomy 18:15, 18-19), Stephen (Acts 7:37-38), and Paul (Romans 10:19, cf. Deuteronomy 32:21).

Conservative scholars today all widely recognize that the narrative framework and conclusion of Deuteronomy likely come from another hand. Such material is generally referred to as being “a-Mosaica” (Dillard and Longman).[17] While Moses is accredited as being the author of his speeches in Deuteronomy, the introduction to the text as well as its conclusion, were probably written by scribes in his inner circle and/or Joshua. It is certain that Moses did not write about his own death.[18] Jewish tradition recognized that Joshua wrote eight verses of the Law (b.Bava Batra 14b),[19] and these are likely the verses that speak of Moses’ death (34:5-12):

“As regards the obituary itself, Jewish tradition is most probably correct in assigning the final eight verses of the Torah to Joshua. Following normal Near Eastern tradition, narratives dealing with events of any importance were written down at the time of, or shortly after, the particular incidents had occurred, and this doubtless took place in connection with the death of Moses” (Edwards and Harrison, ISBE).[20]

Conservatives largely date Deuteronomy’s composition in either the late Fifteenth Century or late Thirteenth Century B.C.E.,[21] depending on how the Exodus is dated (see Exodus entry for a summarization of the conservative debates over the timing of the Exodus).

Liberal theologians who deny any Mosaic authorship of the Torah, largely basing their conclusions on the work of Julius Wellhausen and his documentary hypothesis (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis), generally identify Deuteronomy as the so-called D source or Deuteronomist.[22] Some date Deuteronomy’s composition after the Babylonian exile, but others date it during the reign of King Josiah in the Seventh Century B.C.E. They assert that the Book of Deuteronomy was written as a “pious fraud” and then “discovered” in the Temple,[23] providing the impetus for Josiah’s reforms in 2 Kings 22:3-23:25.[24] Thus, Deuteronomy was only written to call the people back to God when the Southern Kingdom faced extreme threats from both Assyria and Babylon.

Liberals generally assert that Deuteronomy’s “authors were teachers and public officials” (Clements, New Interpreter’s Study Bible)[25] or “rural Levites” (IDBSup).[26] “By employing ‘Moses’ as their spokesperson, they established a link with tradition at precisely the time when tradition, for the sake of survival, had to be transformed” (Jewish Study Bible).[27] Harrison validly points out that these views regarding Deuteronomy’s composition were “an integral part of the evolutionary reconstruction of Hebrew religion which Wellhausen promulgated upon a basis of Hegelian philosophy.”[28] This liberal scholarship “assigned [Deuteronomy] with entirely unwarranted confidence to the activities of an unknown prophet” (Harrison, NBCR).[29] Harrison further states, “Arguments that suggest the possibility of a ‘pious fraud’ are therefore based on analogies from the Graeco-Roman period, and as such have no bearing upon the literary practices of the ancient Near East, where such fabrications simply did not occur.”[30]

While believing that Deuteronomy was originally written during the time of King Josiah, many liberals will argue for later editing by P or the so-called Priestly source, as Deuteronomy contained laws for Israel.[31] Frank M. Cross, in particular, argued for a double redaction of Deuteronomy: one prior to the time of Josiah, and then one after the Babylonian exile.[32]

Most conservatives will concur with liberals that the text found in Josiah’s time was the Book of Deuteronomy,[33] but will not agree with them that it was a fraud designed to get people (re)focused on the worship of the God of Israel. Liberals will particularly argue for a late dating of Deuteronomy because the text speaks affluently of “the place which the LORD your God will choose” (Von Rad, IDB),[34] claiming that its author wants Israel to focus on the Temple and its service, and the exclusivity of Israel’s worship[35] versus the paganism of Assyria or Babylon. But what is more likely, as conservatives validly point out, is simply a “Centralization of worship,” which “reflects Deuteronomy’s ideal picture of ‘one God, one people, one sanctuary’” (Dillard and Longman).[36] Harrison further notes, “the assumption that Jerusalem was the place intended by Deuteronomy where the cultus was to be centralized is entirely subjective in nature, and has no textual warrant for it whatever.”[37]

Interestingly enough, many liberals will argue for an earlier dating of Deuteronomy than all of the other books of the Torah,[38] even though still consigning it to the Seventh Century B.C.E. Conservatives will respond to the liberal criticism, insisting that the covenant language of Deuteronomy mirrors that of vassal treaties extended all the way back to the Third Millennium B.C.E., even though these sorts of agreements did exist in the Seventh Century B.C.E.[39] “The similarity of the structure of Deuteronomy especially to the treaties of the last half of the second millennium B.C. strongly buttresses the basic unity of the book and therefore the Mosaic authorship of it” (EXP).[40] In light of this evidence, some liberals will now admit, “Deuteronomy…is a loyalty oath imposed by God on his vassal, Israel. Such loyalty oaths were prevalent from the days of the Hittite Empire in the 15th-14th centuries through the Assyrian Empire down to the Roman Empire” (ABD).[41]

Deuteronomy’s unity with the rest of the Torah must also be considered on compositional and literary grounds.[42] A major critique that stands against the view that Deuteronomy was composed during the time of Josiah is that it sets the God of Israel against the gods of Canaan, but more than anything else demonstrates the honest character and humanity of Moses. “The picture of Moses thus presented in Deuteronomy is completely consistent with what is found in the historical sections of Exodus and Numbers, and furnishes for the reader a realistic image of a mortal man as contrasted with the highly idealized depictions of later Judaism” (Harrison, NBCR).[43]

The integrity of the text of Deuteronomy is strong, even though there are some important things to take note of. The language of Deuteronomy does not necessarily date from the Seventh Century B.C.E., as some liberals would like to see it, in light of Semitic linguistic studies done of the Second Millennium B.C.E.[44] Deuteronomy was a favorite text of the Qumran community, and all but eight chapters of the book are represented among the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[45] Deuteronomy is also well preserved in its Greek Septuagint translation. Notably, some variations of quotes from Deuteronomy in the Greek Apostolic Scriptures often appear because they are from the LXX, and not the Hebrew Masoretic Text. This confirms that the Hebrew source text for the LXX was slightly different than the present Hebrew text. Some of these variations are minor, but a few may be major.[46] None of these are major enough to radically alter our ideas about any foundational doctrines when compared against other extant ancient versions.

The major theme repeated throughout Deuteronomy is the repetition of God’s covenant with Israel.[47] This covenant is set in the context of the Ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties that would be made between parties. In this case, Israel would be God’s chosen nation if they remained faithful to Him. We see this theme when the various blessings and curses are pronounced for Israel’s faithfulness, or lack of faithfulness, to God’s commands (chs. 27-30). Deuteronomy calls God’s people to totally commit to Him, with an emphasis placed on both corporate and personal choice. The Israelites, while no longer slaves in Egypt, must not abuse the freedom that God has given them.[48]

Deuteronomy also instructs Israel on how to live when they enter into their new life in Canaan.[49] “[T]he strong humanitarian emphasis of other pentateuchal writings is just as prominent in Deuteronomy. In order to ensure that the spiritual traditions of the covenant relationship will be sustained at the highest level through future generations, the Israelites are urged to bring up their children in the reverence and admonition of the Lord” (Edwards and Harrison, ISBE).[50] Deuteronomy has major prophetic overtones regarding the entry of Israel into the Promised Land. It is no surprise that the major themes of the text are picked up by what are frequently called the Former Prophets in the Jewish canon: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The three significant concepts seen in Deuteronomy that are exemplified throughout the whole Bible are (1) remembering the uniqueness of Israel’s God, (2) remembering the uniqueness of God’s people, and (3) remembering the uniqueness of God and His people together. God’s people are able to partake of His blessings via obedience to Him.[51]

Deuteronomy is one of the most widely quoted books from the Tanach in the Apostolic Scriptures with eighty total quotes.[52] Deuteronomy tells us of a prophet who is coming like Moses (18:14-22), which points us to the ministry of Yeshua the Messiah.[53] It is specifically quoted by Yeshua in His rebukes of Satan.[54] As Believers in Him, Deuteronomy reminds us that we are to revere God with all that we are (4:28; 5:10), as He has first loved us. Likewise, none of us must abuse the liberty that we do experience in Yeshua, just as Ancient Israel had its responsibilities when it was freed from Egyptian bondage (5:15; cf. 4:21).

Deuteronomy calls all who read it to rededicate themselves to God, and recognize Him as the only focus of worship in one’s life. Just as the Ancient Israelites stood on the edge of entering into an unknown Promised Land—and needed to be reminded of who the Lord was to their emerging nation—so do many of us likewise need to be reminded of how God has been faithful to the ancients, and to us as well. Deuteronomy has a significant amount that we need to be mindful of as Messianic Believers regarding how we are to obey God, and how He will be faithful to us if we submit to Him. It provides us the impetus for reforming our own lives and orientation toward the Almighty.

When reading Deuteronomy, there are some things that we as Messianics need to be mindful of. Some of us run the risk of ignoring Deuteronomy’s repetition of the commandments, and instead may focus solely on their listing(s) in either Leviticus or Numbers. The problem with this is that Deuteronomy adds details on how they were to be kept, and in some instances changes how they are to be kept.[55] Most significantly with this, “The way in which Moses undertook to ‘explain’ the law (1:5) indicates that he thought it desirable to expound what had been delivered previously” (Edwards and Harrison, ISBE).[56] Moses delivers the commandments to Israel in the way which they are to be kept in the Promised Land.

The challenge with reading Deuteronomy for many of us is remembering that Israel eventually does not heed Moses’ warnings when they reach the Promised Land, and the people quickly fall into sin. Messianic Believers who often study the Torah will often not go beyond Deuteronomy and read the history texts of the Tanach. This is a mistake because while Moses is insistent in Deuteronomy about how Israel is to obey God in the Promised Land, they are never there. In fact, Israel as a nation (excluding the period of Jacob and his sons) is never present in the Promised Land in the narratives of the Torah. We need to couple our Torah studies of Deuteronomy with what takes place throughout the rest of the Tanach, lest we fail to understand its warnings for our own lives today. Each one of us is called to that special relationship that God wanted with Israel in Deuteronomy, and it is fully available now that the Prophet greater than Moses, Yeshua the Messiah, has come.

Bibliography

Clements, Ronald E. “Deuteronomy,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 241-302.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Deuteronomy,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 91-106.

Edwards, D.M., and R.K. Harrison. “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:934-940.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Deuteronomy,” in Old Testament Introduction, pp 635-669.

____________. “Deuteronomy,” in NBCR, pp 201-229.

Kalland, Earl. S. “Deuteronomy,” in EXP, 3:3-235.

Kline, Meredith G. “Deuteronomy,” in NIDB, pp 269-271.

Levinson, Bernard M. “Deuteronomy,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 356-462.

Lohfink, N. “Deuteronomy,” in IDBSup, pp 229-232.

Von Rad, G. “Deuteronomy,” in IDB, 1:831-838.

Weinfeld, Moshe. “Deuteronomy, Book of,” in ABD, 2:168-183.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Deuteronomy

[1] Heb. shama.

[2] Meredith G. Kline, “Deuteronomy,” in NIDB, 269.

[3] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 635.

[4] Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 1041.

[5] G. Von Rad, “Deuteronomy,” in IDB, 1:831; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 655; Kline, “Deuteronomy,” in NIDB, 269.

[6] Moshe Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy, Book of,” in ABD, 2:168.

[7] D.M. Edwards and R.K. Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:934; cf. Dillard and Longman, 91.

[8] R.K. Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in NBCR, 201.

[9] Bernard M. Levinson, “Deuteronomy,” in Jewish Study Bible, 356.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Harrison, in NBCR, 201.

[12] Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy, Book of,” in ABD, 2:169.

[13] Von Rad, “Deuteronomy,” in IDB, 1:831.

[14] Dillard and Longman, 92.

[15] Ibid., 100.

[16] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 636-637.

[17] Dillard and Longman, pp 92-93; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 637-640, 659.

[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 661; Harrison, in NBCR, 203; Kline, “Deuteronomy,” in NIDB, 269.

[19] “Joshua wrote the book that is called by his name and the last eight verses of the Torah” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[20] Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:938; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 661.

[21] Harrison, in NBCR, 204; Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:938.

[22] Von Rad, “Deuteronomy,” in IDB, 1:831-832.

[23] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 647.

[24] Von Rad, “Deuteronomy,” in IDB, 136; Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:935-936; Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy, Book of,” ABD, 2:175-176; Levinson, in Jewish Study Bible, 357.

[25] Ronald E. Clements, “Deuteronomy,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 242; cf. Von Rad, “Deuteronomy,” in IDB, 1:836.

[26] N. Lohfink, “Deuteronomy,” in IDBSup, 229.

[27] Levinson, in Jewish Study Bible, 358.

[28] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 640.

[29] Harrison, in NBCR, 202.

[30] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 647.

[31] Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy, Book of,” in ABD, 2:171-172.

[32] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 640; Dillard and Longman, 105.

[33] Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1939; Dillard and Longman, pp 93-94.

[34] Von Rad, “Deuteronomy,” in IDB, 1:834.

[35] Lohfink, “Deuteronomy,” in IDBSup, 231; Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy, Book of,” in ABD, 2:177-178.

[36] Dillard and Longman, 104.

[37] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 643.

[38] Kline, “Deuteronomy,” in NIDB, 270; Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:936.

[39] Harrison, in NBCR, 202; Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:937-938; Dillard and Longman, pp 96-99.

[40] Earl S. Kalland, “Deuteronomy,” in EXP; 3:5; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 648-650.

[41] Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy, Book of,” in ABD, 2:170.

[42] Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:938.

[43] Harrison, in NBCR, 203.

[44] Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:938.

[45] Kalland, in EXP, 3:7.

[46] Ibid., 3:9.

[47] Kline, “Deuteronomy,” in NIDB, 269.

[48] Harrison, in NBCR, 204.

[49] Kalland, in EXP, 3:5.

[50] Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:940.

[51] Ibid., 1:935.

[52] Harrison, in NBCR, 202.

[53] Dillard and Longman, 105.

[54] Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” ISBE, 1:935; Kalland, in EXP, 3:7.

[55] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 650-651; Dillard and Longman, 95.

[56] Edwards and Harrison, “Deuteronomy,” in ISBE, 1:938.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON DEUTERONOMY:

1. What is your initial impression of the place of Deuteronomy within the Torah? What role does Moses perform in this book, compared to the others of the Pentateuch?

2. How important do you think it was for Moses to repeat what has happened to the Israelites in their travels?

3. Which one statement or phrase (or concept) jumps out at the reader throughout the Book of Deuteronomy?

4. What does the Shema of Deuteronomy 6 call the Israelites to do? (How significant will this word be for the continuance of the Biblical narrative?)

5. Why would Israel be commanded to exterminate the (then-present) occupants of the Promised Land? (Does this affect one’s interpretation of later books in the Tanach?)

6. Of the commandments and ordinances seen in Deuteronomy, which one(s) strike(s) you as the most intriguing, or perhaps needing further reflection and study?

7. Do you believe that all of the laws seen in Deuteronomy can be followed by Messianics today? Why or why not?

8. What is the significance of what Israel is to commit to at the base of Mounts Ebal and Gerizim?

9. Do you believe that the instruction of Deuteronomy is difficult to follow, or at least consider for character formation? Why or why not?

10. Did anything about Moses’ declarations upon Israel strike you as being significant (chs. 32-33)? If so, what was it?

11. How would the Book of Deuteronomy have had significance for a generation like Josiah’s? (Do you find any parallels between Josiah’s time and ours today?)

12. What important lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Deuteronomy?

REFLECTION ON DEUTERONOMY’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Deuteronomy:

NEVI'IM

PROPHETS

BOOK OF JOSHUA

Approximate date: 1390 B.C.E. (Right); 1200s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate); before 586 B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate, some Left); mid-to-late 500s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: Israel subduing the Promised Land

Author: Joshua exclusively (Right); Joshua, Eleazar, and later editors (some conservative-moderate); Eleazar or Phinehas (some conservative-moderate); Israel’s court historians or an unknown exile from the Southern Kingdom (Left)

Location of author: wilderness journey after the Exodus (Right, conservative-moderate); Jerusalem, Babylon, and/or Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel entering and conquering the Promised Land (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish religious leaders during the reign of King Josiah and/or Jewish exiles living in Babylon or returning from Babylon (Left)

People:

Joshua (son of Nun), Reubenites, Gadites, Rahab, Levites, Canaanites, Hittites, Hivites, Perizzites, Girgashites, Amorites, Jebusites, Achan, Adoni-Zedek, Hoham, Piram, Japhia, Debir, Jabin, Jobab, Anakites, defeated kings (ch. 12), Avvites, Eleazar, Kohathites, descendants of Gershon, descendants of Merari, Phinehas

People mentioned:

Moses, Sihon, Og, Sidonians, Gebalites, Rephaites, Terah, Abraham, Nahor, Isaac, Jacob, Esau, Aaron, Balak, Baalam

Places:

Jordan River, Shittim, Jericho, Adam (vicinity of Zarethan), Sea of Arabah (Salt Sea), Gibeath Haaraloth, Gilgal, Ai, Beth Aven, Mount Ebal, Mount Gerizim, Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, Kiriath Jearim, Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, Eglon, Beth Horon, Azekah, Makkedah, Valley of Aijalon, Libnah, Gezer, Negev, Kadesh Barnea, Hazor, Madon, Shimron, Acshaph, Kinnereth, Mizpah, Waters of Merom, Greater Sidon, Misrephoth Maim, Valley of Mizpah, Goshen, Mount Halak, Baal Gad, Gaza, Gath, Ashdod, Shihor River, Ekron, Ashkelon, Arah, Aphek, Lebo Hamath, Shiloh, Temnath Serah, cities of refuge (Kedesh, Shechem, Kiriath Arba), Canaan, Mount Gaash

Placed mentioned:

Lebanon, Euphrates, Hittite country, Great Sea, Egypt, Red Sea, Bethel, Babylonia (Shinar), Arabah, Heshbon, Bashan, Ashtaroth, borders of half-of-Manasseh, Reuben, Gad (13:9-31), Moab, borders of Judah (15:1-63), borders of Ephraim and Manasseh (16:1-17:17), borders of Benjamin (18:11-27), borders of Simeon (19:1-9), borders of Zebulun (19:10-16), borders of Issachar (19:17-23), borders of Asher (19:24-31), borders of Naphtali (19:32-39), borders of Dan (19:40-48), cities of the Levites (21:9-42)

Key Themes and Events:

the Lord reaffirms His promise of land to Israel, to Joshua / Joshua readies to lead Israel into the Promised Land / Rahab protects the Israelite spies in Jericho / Rahab and her family are promised that their lives will be spared / the two spies bring back a good report to Joshua / the Jordan River stops flowing while the Ark of the Covenant and the Israelites cross into the Promised Land / twelve stones from the Jordan River are set up to memorialize the crossing over at Gilgal / the Israelite males are circumcised / the Israelites celebrate the Passover, and stop eating manna / Joshua encounters an angel (messenger) of the Lord on his way to Jericho / Jericho falls at the sound of the trumpet and loud shout, after seven days of marching around the city / every living thing in Jericho is killed, although precious metals (gold, silver, bronze, iron) are to go into the Lord’s treasury / Rahab and her family are spared / Achan takes some of the appropriations for himself / a small force is sent to take Ai, and it is routed / Achan is brought before Joshua, and confesses to where his loot is stached / Achan and his family are stoned and burned / Joshua sets an ambush, and Ai falls / Israel arrives at Mounts Ebal and Gerizim, and Joshua reads God’s Instruction to them / the Gibeonites try to deceive the leaders of Israel, making them think they come from a far off country / Joshua makes a peace treaty with the Gibeonites, with them later becoming woodcutters and water carriers within Israel / Joshua and the Israelites defeat the five kings of the Amorites, with the sun setting still in the sky for a full day / the five kings themselves are killed by Joshua, having fled to a cave / Joshua conquers the southern cities of Canaan / Joshua defeats the northern kings of Canaan, taking a great deal of plundered livestock / Joshua is able to subdue the Promised Land, exterminating everyone except the Gibeonites / some Anakites survive / a list of the defeated kings is tallied / as Joshua ages, the Lord tells him all that is left to be conquered are the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites / Joshua divides the land east of the Jordan for half-of-Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad / Joshua divides the land west of the Jordan for the remaining tribes of Israel / cities of refuge are established / the Levites are given towns/ the Reubenites and Gadites are allowed to return to their home in the east, and are given a warning not to rebel against the Lord / Joshua warns the Israelites not to associate with the religion of their neighbors / Joshua admonishes Israel to keep Moses’ Teaching / Joshua recalls the life story of the Patriarchs, God’s deliverance, and for Israel to stay away from other gods / Joshua dies and is buried at Timnah Serah / Joseph’s remains are buried in Shechem / Eleazar dies and is buried at Gibeah

Key Scriptures: Joshua 1:6-9; 2:8-13, 24; 4:23-24; 8:30-33; 11:16-20, 22; 21:43-45; 23:6-7, 15-16; 24:14-18, 19-23 / Entering the Promised Land (1:1-5:12); Conquering the Promised Land (5:13-12:24); Dividing the Promised Land (13:1-24:33)

Theological Summary: The Book of Joshua picks up the story of Israel’s history as the people finally enter the Promised Land after forty years of wandering in the desert. This account derives its name from its principal character, the man Joshua, who was anointed by Moses to be his successor and lead the Israelites into Canaan. God commands the people to move west and cross the Jordan River similar to how He led them through the Red Sea during the Exodus. Joshua, as the leader of the next generation of Israelites, moves us beyond the Exodus[1] and into the prosperous future that God has planned for His people.

The major theme of Joshua, that will resonate throughout other books of the Bible, is the establishment of God’s people in the land that He has chosen for them. This is commonly depicted as a place of “rest” (1:13, 15; 21:44; 22:4, 23:1). We see the God of Israel set against the gods of Canaan, as the Israelites move into the Promised Land and directly clash with its inhabitants. The Book of Joshua uniquely places the history of Israel into the larger history of the Canaanite world and its many city-states, and is debated for its accuracy among conservative and liberal Bible scholars.

The figure of Joshua was originally named Hoshea (Numbers 13:8, 16), a derivative name meaning “salvation,” but was renamed to Joshua or “the Lord saves.” It was through Joshua that “the LORD gave Israel all the land which He had sworn to give to their fathers, and they possessed it and lived in it” (21:43). More than a few theologians have noted parallels between the life of Joshua and the mission of Yeshua the Messiah.[2] The Hebrew name of this book is Yehoshua, and notably the Greek Septuagint calls it Iēsous,[3] the Greek name used to transliterate the later form Yeshua, also used in the Greek Apostolic Scriptures for the name of the Messiah.[4] (The transliteration Iēsous is notably of Jewish origin, and is strong definitive evidence against the claim that the English name “Jesus” derives from paganism, as some Messianics falsely believe.)[5]

The Jewish division of the Hebrew canon places the Book of Joshua as the first of the Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. While these texts are commonly considered the Historical Books in Christian tradition, they do record more than Israel’s history. Jewish theology regards them as having key prophetic themes,[6] and much of today’s Christian scholarship has begun to integrate this point of view into its studies of Joshua. “The author’s intention was not to preserve history for its own sake, not even a prophetically interpreted history. He presented a careful selection of historical and traditional materials in order to preach” (EXP).[7] The message of God’s faithfulness and concern for His people was something that needed to be emphasized for later generations of Israel after the Conquest, particularly those of the Judges, and the Jews who lived immediately prior to and during the Babylonian exile.

The text of Joshua may be divided into four major sections. (1) It begins with Israel’s preparations for entering into the Promised Land (ch. 1). Continuing, (2) we see the narratives of the invasion and conquest of Canaan (chs. 2-12), and (3) Joshua as an old man parsing out territory to individual tribes (chs. 13-21). (4) The Book of Joshua ends with Joshua’s death and the reburial of Joseph’s remains brought from Egypt (chs. 22-24).

Jewish tradition in the Talmud accepts Joshua as the author of this book, with the exception of his death written by Eleazar the priest (b.Bava Batra 14b; 15a), even though the text of Joshua itself is strictly anonymous.[8] There are records in Joshua of reports of writing by Joshua himself, or at least at his command to scribes:

“Then the men arose and went, and Joshua commanded those who went to describe the land, saying, ‘Go and walk through the land and describe it, and return to me; then I will cast lots for you here before the LORD in Shiloh’” (18:8).

“So Joshua made a covenant with the people that day, and made for them a statute and an ordinance in Shechem” (24:25).

Other accounts in the book list Joshua as a participant in the events as either “we” or “us” (5:1, 6).

Many conservative theologians believe in principal authorship of Joshua by Joshua himself, or at least authorship in “a major source in the book” (Harrison).[9] They note that Joshua would have been familiar with the geography of Canaan, having been one of the twelve spies, just like the author of Joshua demonstrates himself to be. There are some conservatives, however, who believe that Joshua is not the author, but instead would be someone in his close inner circle such as the priests Eleazar or Phinehas, as either one of them would have had access to Joshua.[10]

The timing of Joshua’s composition is obviously connected to the timing of the Exodus, which conservatives are not agreed upon, with some favoring the Fifteenth Century B.C.E., and others favoring the Thirteenth Century B.C.E. (see Exodus entry for a summarization of the conservative debates over the timing of the Exodus). As a result, some believe that Joshua’s events occurred in the mid-Fifteenth Century, and there are many others who believe that they occurred in the mid-to-late Thirteenth Century[11] based on extant archaeological evidence.[12] While many believe that Joshua’s events were written down as they occurred, there are conservatives who have argued for a composition date after the death of Joshua, sometime during the period of the Judges or slightly later.[13]

All liberal scholars deny that Joshua had anything to do with the composition of the book that bears his name,[14] but they are divided on the time of its composition. Many liberal theologians have sought to include the Book of Joshua along with the Torah as a part of Wellhausen’s JEDP hypothesis (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis), including it as part of a so-called Hexateuch.[15] It is notable, however, that this approach has been in the process of being steadily abandoned,[16] and is not widely adhered to any more.

Today, most liberal theologians believe that Joshua was written in the Seventh Century B.C.E., as many as 600-800 years after the events that it records, and was compiled as a part of the reforms during the reign of King Josiah spearheaded by the discovery of a scroll of Deuteronomy. Hence, Joshua is frequently referred to as being part of a “Deuteronomist history.” Many assert that the themes of Deuteronomy are present in Joshua, including the writing style of Moses interacting with the people, compared to Joshua interacting with them.[17] In the mid-Twentieth Century, German liberal scholar Martin Noth proposed that Deuteronomy must be separated from the Torah, and actually be connected to Joshua. Some liberals have agreed to this proposition and consider the Hebrew Bible to be divided between a so-called Tetrateuch of Genesis-Numbers,[18] with Deuteronomy and Joshua starting another section.

While not fully agreed among themselves, many liberals advocate that the Book of Joshua was composed as part of a larger work during the Babylonian exile to show the refugees what happens when one betrays God. “His [the supposed author’s] dream, set down during the dark days of Babylonian overlordship, is the full possession of the whole land, and he expresses Israel’s claim to the land by his ordering of the materials regarding Joshua’s conquest” (IDB).[19] Many other liberals think that Joshua was written after the Babylonian exile as the Jewish exiles formulated their canon.[20] Ironically, while often arguing for a fragmented Torah of various sources, liberals today will frequently argue for the literary unity of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings as a single work, the so-called “Deuteronomist history.”[21]

Most notably, liberals maintain that the integrity of Joshua can be legitimately questioned and doubted by modern scrutiny,[22] with many of them denying any kind of historicity to the events. This is true of both Jewish and Christian liberal teachers. They will frequently claim that archaeology today has yet to reveal any “pattern of destruction that can be correlated, in their chronology or location, with the period of early Israel” (Jewish Study Bible),[23] that would be detailed in Joshua. No better example can be considered than the common liberal conclusion that the destruction of Jericho was really just the sacking of an uninhabited, or scarcely populated town, and at best was a “ritual conquest” (ABD).[24] Many other liberals will simply claim that the Book of Joshua overexaggerated events that occurred long before the text was written.[25]

Conservative scholarship has often had a great deal to counter regarding the Book of Joshua. Conservatives do recognize that some redaction has taken place with Joshua, and acknowledge that “the problems associated with the source material underlying the extant book are quite complicated” (Harrison).[26] A quotation exists in Joshua from a so-called book of Jashar (10:13), no longer extant (which modern Jewish tradition regards as the Torah). The phrase “to this day” (15:63; 16:10) appears numerous times, indicating that the text may have been written after Joshua,[27] but certainly that some revision has occurred. Adding information, particularly among the city-lists and lists of tribes, likely also took place after Joshua,[28] but no later than the reigns of David or Solomon.[29] References to events after Joshua’s death, such as the conquest of Hebron by Caleb (15:13-14; cf. Judges 1:10, 20), were certainly added at a later date.

The final composition of Joshua likely occurred after his death, as the authorized source document of “Joshua” would have remained among the royal annals of the Southern Kingdom. Some conservatives will concede that it was edited later into its final form. “[T]here is considerable support for the view that the sources from which it is derived were contemporary with the events described, and that the book took its form at an early date” (Payne, NBCR).[30] The Prophet Samuel is sometimes suggested as a possible editor. While liberals frequently counter these claims by saying that the composition of Joshua in its final form had to be considerably later, good literary reasons explain for what appear to be contradictions in the events:

“What some have attributed to a hodge-podge of contradictory sources has more recently been explained as a characteristic of Hebrew narrative style. Thematic concerns rather than chronology control the arrangement” (EXP).[31]

The valid point that liberals do make regarding the composition of Joshua is that the message of Deuteronomy is present in these texts.[32] Is it valid to wonder if Joshua was “edited from a Deuteronomistic perspective” (IDBSup)?[33] Even for some conservatives, this is an easy way to reconcile the traditions of Joshua’s authorship to some redaction that may have occurred in the text. “Even if a seventh-century style has been imposed in the process of editing, the material itself is much earlier. Deuteronomy is forward looking” (EXP).[34] This is possible when we consider that the Book of Joshua would have been regarded as primarily an historical record and not necessarily a sacred text like the Torah. Later Jewish tradition ascribes its status to that of the Former Prophets.

Most significantly, conservative scholars do present strong archaeological evidence against the liberal claim that there is no archaeological evidence to support Joshua’s claims of conquest.[35] Much of the evidence that could be uncovered in Israel today is impossible to dig per the current political climate, in addition to other parts of the region that are equally unstable. Also to consider is the fact of site-shifting where a city or town will actually move to a different location in ancient times. This causes problems for the archaeologist who thinks that he has found a Biblical city, when in fact he may have not. K.A. Kitchen notes this problem concerning the Jericho of Joshua, informing us,

“Old Testament Jericho (now Tell es-Sultan) was abandoned from Hellenistic times, and settlement moved to near the springs of Ain-Sultan, onto the site which became modern Jericho (Er-Riha). But in Hellenistic/Roman times, palaces and residential villas were built at a third site nearby (Tulul Abu el-Alaiq). So, today, there are three ‘Jerichos.’”[36]

The Hebrew text of Joshua that is used to translate most Bibles today has been well-preserved since 1008 C.E. in the Leningrad codex.[37] The Greek Septuagint version of Joshua does add some information, including a few inquiries by figures such as Solomon,[38] “The LXX version indicates attempts to expand the Hebrew through the addition of words and phrases” (Harrison).[39]

The most significant part regarding the composition of the Book of Joshua concerns how we properly interpret and apply the text. The three major players in Joshua are very simply God, Joshua, and the people of Israel. It includes a major call to Israel to be faithful to God (1:1-9; 3:7-10; 22:1-6; 23:1-16; 24:1-15, 19-20, 22-23), and the people swear obedience to God (1:16-18; 24:16-18, 21-22, 24). The faithlessness of Israel turns into defeat (ch. 7),[40] whereas miraculous occurrences take place because of their obedience. These include the parting of the Jordan River (chs. 3-4), the destruction of Jericho’s walls (ch. 6), hailstones and the sun standing still (10:11-13), and the hardening of the hearts of Israel’s enemies (11:20). Furthermore, the enemies of Israel demonstrate a strong fear for them (2:24; 4:24; 10:2).

There are theological difficulties that some have with Joshua, particularly with what can be perceived as “commanded genocide” on God’s behalf, as He frequently commands Israel to go into a city and kill all of its inhabitants.[41] Finding this very offensive is what has caused liberals to think that Joshua’s claims are exaggerated. There have been some conservatives in response who have suggested that Israel was on the defensive, dispossessing the Canaanites.[42] Likewise, many have also thought that Israel was used as God’s tool of Divine vengeance on the sin of the Canaanites, comparing the judgment on Sodom and Gomorrah to Israel’s destruction of Jericho,[43] noting that some cities were given a chance to repent.

When confronted with violent realities presented in the Book of Joshua, we need to consider that “God was careful to point out that he was not arbitrarily destroying the Canaanites just to give the land to Israel. The wickedness of the inhabitants of Canaan was the reason why God was removing them; and if Israel proved unfaithful, she too would be removed from the land” (EXP).[44] Furthermore, it is important for us to note that only part of the Promised Land was taken by Israel in the Book of Joshua. “The writer probably understood the taking of the land to mean the gaining of control without eliminating all opposition” (Waltke, ISBE).[45]

Messianic Believers today should take heart of the example of Joshua as leader of Israel,[46] and the notable parallels that we see in both Yeshua the Messiah and His Apostles. Joshua was a bold man (Numbers 27:18). He endured the slavery of Egypt, saw the plagues of God, experienced the Exodus, and led Israel to victory over the Amalekites (Exodus 17:8-13). Joshua accompanied Moses to the mountain to receive the Law (Exodus 24:13-14), and witnessed the establishment of the Tabernacle (Exodus 33:11). He is one of only two spies to deliver a positive report of the Promised Land (Numbers 14:26-34). Most importantly, Joshua was the servant chosen to succeed Moses (Deuteronomy 31:23) and mimic him.[47] The author of Hebrews notably mentions Joshua as a type of person foreshadowing the Messiah (Hebrews 4:1, 6-8).

Today’s Messianic movement often fails to examine the Book of Joshua because it is widely preoccupied with its Tanach study only in the Torah. Perhaps the term “Hextateuch” could be used in some Messianic contexts to emphasize that the history of God’s people does not end at Deuteronomy. While the Book of Joshua is not considered in Jewish theology to be as authoritative as the Torah, it is certainly not ignored. Our frequent, casual dismissal of Joshua is unfortunate, because “The Book of Joshua deals with one very important stage in the fulfillment of God’s great plan to provide salvation for the whole world” (EXP).[48] While rejecting liberal theories surrounding Joshua’s composition, do we as Messianics nevertheless understand Deuteronomy as a bridge between the wilderness travels of Israel and their conquest of the Promised Land?[49] Do we see its themes present in Joshua?

A fresh Messianic examination of Joshua would be very helpful for us to understand the historical setting of the Ancient Near East in the Fifteenth-Thirteenth Centuries B.C.E. There was a power vacuum among the city-states of Canaan that Israel was going to quickly fill. Hebrew, while being the language of Israel, was one of the many Semitic languages of the region and was not unique. Archaeological finds in Israel today continually show us new things about the Late Bronze, Early Iron Age, pointing to a mid-Thirteenth Century invasion of Canaan. Most significantly for us, the Book of Joshua demonstrates how Israel’s religion directly clashed with the locals, and the uniqueness of Israel’s God when compared to the regional deities. Israel’s God was concerned with the welfare for other human beings, whereas the gods of Canaan treated humans as only property or slaves.

Most significant for us to consider when reading Joshua is that it takes us beyond Moses and we get to see how the next generation of Israelites handles the struggles that they face. Did they learn from the mistakes of their predecessors? Many Christians use Joshua as a text for Believers to be encouraged to go evangelize the world, realizing that it is through people hearing the gospel and growing in the Lord that our faith perpetuates itself another generation.

When we look at today’s Messianic movement, are we raising up a generation to go after us? Will they be people filled with the Spirit of God? Will they be people who do not cower in the face of adversity? Will they be people who have true discernment and know the right actions? The Book of Joshua is a physical depiction of the realities of the spiritual war that we are constantly engaged with (Ephesians 6:10-18).[50] If we intend to understand the Lord’s call upon us, then Joshua is certainly a text that we need not overlook any more.

Bibliography

Dillard, Raymond, and Tremper Longman III. “Joshua,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 107-117.

Blair, Hugh J. “Joshua,” in NBCR, pp 230-251.

Boling, Robert G. “Joshua, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1002-1015.

Good, E.M. “Joshua, Book of,” in IDB, 2:988-995.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Joshua,” in Old Testament Introduction, pp 665-679.

Knight, Douglas A. “Joshua,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 303-341.

Madvig, Donald H. “Joshua,” in EXP, 3:239-371.

Meyers, Carol. “Joshua,” in The Jewish Study Bible, pp 462-507.

Miller, J.M. “Joshua, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 493-496.

Payne, J. Barton. “Joshua, Book of,” in NIDB, 548.

Waltke, B.K. “Joshua, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1134-1138.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Joshua

[1] Dillard and Longman, 107.

[2] Hugh J. Blair, “Joshua,” in NBCR, 234.

[3] E.M. Good, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDB, 2:988; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 665; B.K. Waltke, “Joshua, Book of,”in ISBE, 2:1134.

[4] Donald H. Madvig, “Joshua,” in EXP, 3:243.

[5] Cf. Alfred Rahlfs, ed., Septuaginta (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1979), 1:354-405; Leonard J. Greenspoon, “Iesous,” in Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, eds., A New English Translation of the Septuagint (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp 174-194.

[6] J. Barton Payne, “Joshua, Book of,” in NIDB, 548.

[7] Madvig, EXP, 3:244.

[8] Payne, “Joshua, Book of,” in NIDB, 548; Madvig, in EXP, 3:242; Dillard and Longman, 108.

[9] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 666.

[10] Payne, “Joshua, Book of,” in NIDB, 548; Madvig, in EXP, 3:242.

[11] Blair, in NBCR, 232; Madvig, in EXP, 3:240-241.

[12] Dillard and Longman, pp 110-111.

[13] Waltke, “Joshua, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1138; Madvig, in EXP, 3:244.

[14] E.M. Good, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDB, 2:989.

[15] Good, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDB, 2:989-990; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 666-668; Waltke, “Joshua, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1136-1137.

[16] J.M. Miller, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDBSup, 493.

[17] Carol Meyers, “Joshua,” in Jewish Study Bible, 462.

[18] Robert G. Boling, “Joshua, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1007.

[19] Good, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDB, 2:992.

[20] Ibid., 2:991-992.

[21] Miller, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDBSup, 493; Madvig, in EXP, 3:240; Meyers, in Jewish Study Bible, 462.

[22] Bowling, “Joshua, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1007.

[23] Meyers, in Jewish Study Bible, 463.

[24] Bowling, “Joshua, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1009.

[25] Good, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDB, 2:993-994; Blair, in NBCR, pp 233-234.

[26] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 669.

[27] Dillard and Longman, 108.

[28] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 671.

[29] Blair, in NBCR, 231; Payne, “Joshua, Book of,” in NIDB, 548.

[30] Payne, “Joshua, Book of,” in NBCR, 232.

[31] Madvig, in EXP, 3:242.

[32] Miller, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDBSup, 493; Bowling, “Joshua, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1007.

[33] Miller, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDBSup, 493.

[34] Madvig, in EXP, 3:240.

[35] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 674-678; Blair, in NBCR, 232; Madvig, in EXP, 3:247-248.

[36] K.A. Kitchen, The Bible In Its World: The Bible & Archaeology Today (Exeter: Paternoster, 1977), 13.

[37] Madvig, in EXP, 3:246.

[38] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 670.

[39] Ibid., 678.

[40] Waltke, “Joshua, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1136.

[41] Good, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDB, 2:995; Madvig, EXP, 3:246-247.

[42] Waltke, “Joshua, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1135.

[43] Blair, in NBCR, 234; Waltke, “Joshua, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1135.

[44] Madvig, in EXP, 3:247.

[45] Waltke, “Joshua, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1135.

[46] Blair, in NBCR, 230.

[47] Madvig, in EXP, 3:239; Meyers, in Jewish Study Bible, 464.

[48] Madvig, in EXP, 3:239.

[49] Miller, “Joshua, Book of,” in IDBSup, 493; Madvig, in EXP, 3:239-240.

[50] Cf. Madvig, in EXP, 3:247.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON JOSHUA:

1. What do you think is most important or significant about Joshua leading Israel?

2. Why is Rahab the prostitute spared from the destruction of Jericho?

3. What was the sin of Achan?

4. Which of the battles in Joshua strikes you as being the most important for the goal of securing the Promised Land?

5. Summarize the divisions of the Promised Land once the Canaanites are defeated.

6. What is Joshua’s final admonition to Israel before dying?

7. How would you respond to the claim that the Book of Joshua promotes ethnic cleansing, or even genocide?

8. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Joshua?

REFLECTION ON JOSHUA’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Joshua:

BOOK OF JUDGES

Approximate date: 1000 B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); before 586 B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate; some Left); mid-to-late 500s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: Israel living in the Promised Land without a king

Author: Samuel (Right); Israel’s court historians and further editors (conservative-moderate); Israel’s court historians or an unknown exile from the Southern Kingdom (Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel (Right, some conservative-moderate); Jerusalem, Babylon, and/or Land of Israel (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel having subdued the Land of Canaan (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish religious leaders during the reign of King Josiah and/or Jewish exiles living in Babylon or returning from Babylon (Left)

People:

Canaanites, Perizzites, Adoni-Bezek, Caleb, Othniel, Benjamites, Jebusites, Amorites, Baals and Ashtoreths (local deities), Philistines, Sidonians, Hivites, Hittites, Amorites, Cushan-Rishathaim, Eglon, Ammonites, Amalekites, Ehud (son of Gera), Shamgar (son of Anath), Jabin (king of Canaan), Sisera, Deborah, Lappidoth, Barak (son of Abinoam), Jael, Heber the Kenite, Midianites, Joash the Abiezrite, Gideon, Jerub-Baal (name for Gideon), Purah, Oreb Zeeb, Abiezer, Zebah, Zalmunnah, Jether, Abimelech, Baal-Berith (deity), Jotham, Gaal (son of Ebed), Zebul, Tola (son of Puah, son of Dodo), Jair, Egyptians, Maonites, Jephthah, Gilead, Chemosh (deity), Ibzan, Elon, Abdon (son of Hillel), Manoah, Samson, Delilah, Dagon (deity), Micah, Jonathan

People mentioned:

Joshua, Sheshai, Ahiman, Talmai, Sihon, Balak, Phinehas, Eleazar, Aaron

Places:

Bezek, Jerusalem, Negev, Hebron (Kiriath Arba), Debir (Kiriath Sepher), City of Palms, Desert of Judah, Zephath/Hormah, Gaza, Ashkelon, Ekron, Bethel (Luz), land of the Hittites, Beth Shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, Megiddo, Gezer, Kitron, Nahalol, Acco, Sidon, Ahlab, Aczib, Helbah, Aphek, Rehob, Beth Shemesh, Beth Anath, Mount Hereb, Aijalon, Shaalbim, Scorpion Pass, Sela, Gilgal, Bokim, Canaan, Lebanon, Mount Baal Hermon, Lebo Hamath, Aram Naharaim (Mesopotamia), Moab, Jordan, Hazor, Harosheth Haggoyim, Palm of Deborah, Ramah, Kedesh (in Naphtali), Mount Tabor, Kishon River, Seir, Edom, Midian, Ophrah, Valley of Jezreel, spring of Harod, hill of Moreh, Mount Gilead, Beth Shittah, Zererah, Abel Meholah, Tabbath Succoth, Peniel, Karkor, Pass of Heres, Shechem, Beth Millo, Mount Gerizim, Beer, Mount Zalmon, Thebez, Shamir, Havvoth Jair, Kamon, Mizpah, land of Tob, Minnith, Abel Keramim, Zaphon, Bethlehem, Pirathon, Zorah, Mahaneh Dan, Eshtaol, Timnah, Ashkelon, Etham, Lehi, Ramath Lehi, En Hakkore, Valley of Sorek, Laish (Dan), Kiriath Jearim, Beth Rehob, Shiloh, Gibeah, Baal Tamar, Ramah, Beersheba, Jabesh Gilead, rock of Rimmon, Lebonah

Places mentioned:

Egypt, Timnath Heres, Mount Gaash, Sinai, Makir, Arnon, Jabbok, Red Sea, Jahaz, Heshbon

Key Themes and Events:

Israel is forced to deal with remaining Canaanites that were not routed during the Conquest / the Lord rebukes Israel for leaving Canaanite survivors in the Promised Land / those who follow Joshua’s generation fall into idolatry, worshipping the local Baals and Ashtoreths / the Lord raises up judges to call the people back to Him / the Lord plans to use the local Canaanites to test the loyalty of Israel to Him / Othniel is raised up as a judge, defeating the king of Aram / Eglon king of Moab subjects Israel / Ehud assassinates the fat Eglon, and Moab becomes subjected to Israel / Deborah arises as judge over Israel, directing Barak to defeat the army of Jabin / Jael drives a tent peg into Jabin’s head / Deborah and Barak sing a song of victory / Israel rebels against the Lord, and so Midianites, Amalekites, and others trespass and ruin their crops / Gideon is called out by God to deliver Israel from Midian, although he needs to be reassured several times that He has truly called him / the men of Gideon are divided at the Lord’s request / the Midianite camp is routed by Gideon’s forces during the night, later being pursued / Gideon pursues Zebah and Zalmunna, killing them / Gideon dies and the good things he had done for Israel are forgotten / Abimelech, son of Gideon, kills all of his brothers save Jotham / Abimelech arises over Israel as a political adventurer / Gaal tries to rally an insurrection against Abimelech / Abimelech kills the people of Shechem, and destroys the city / Abimelech sets fire to the tower of Shechem / Abimelech is killed by one of his soldiers, after a woman drops a millstone on his head / Tola arises as a ruler of Israel / Jair arises as a ruler of Israel / the Israelites once again fall into sin and serve the gods of their neighbors / the elders of Gilead ask Jephthah to lead the fight against the Ammonites / Jephthah carries on a correspondence with the king of Ammon, telling him what land Israel has truly occupied / Jephthah tells the Lord that if He gives him a victory against Ammon, he will make a burnt offering of the first thing that comes to meet him when returning home / Jephthah’s virgin daughter is the first to meet him after his victory / Jephthah’s daughter is given two months because she will never marry / Jephthah, as a Gileadite, defeats some renegade Ephraimites / Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon all arise as rulers over Israel / Israel rebels against God, and so they are delivered into the hands of the Philistines / God promises Manoah’s wife that she will have a son, but he is to be raised as a Nazirite / Manoah and his wife encounter a messenger of the Lord / Samson is born / Samson kills a lion with his bare hands, later taking some honey from the lion’s carcass / those who attend Samson’s wedding banquet are confronted by a riddle / Samson goes down to Ashkelon, killing thirty, and giving their belongings to the thirty who attended his banquet / Samson sends pairs of foxes with torches to burn the Philistine fields / the Philistines kill Samson’s wife and her father / the Philistines extend their influence over Judah / the Judahites tie up Samson, taking him to the Philistines to be killed / Samson breaks free of his restraints, and kills Philistines / Samson rules Israel / Samson escapes from Gaza by lifting up a city gate / Samson falls for the Philistine woman Delilah / Delilah is encouraged to find the source of Samson’s strength / Delilah has Samson’s braids of hair shaved, causing him to lose his strength / Samson is seized by the Philistines, who gouge out his eyes and take him as a prisoner to Gaza / the Lord gives Samson the strength to push down the pillars of Dagon’s temple, and he dies with the people as the structure collapses / a Levite comes to live with Micah, serving as his personal priest in the presence of a silver idol / some Danites come and they plunder Micah of his possessions and idol / Laish is renamed Dan, where the Danites serve Micah’s idol / a Levite’s concubine is brutally raped by the inhabitants of a town while he travels / an Israelite vigilante force is assembled to enact vengeance upon the people of Gibeah / the tribe of Benjamin suffers a devastating defeat, and considerable losses, at the hands of the other tribes / arrangements are made for the Benjamites to not fall into extinction among the other tribes of Israel

Key Scriptures: Judges 2:1-3, 10-11, 16-19; 3:20-22; 4:8-9; 5:7-9; 7:22-24; 10:11-16; 11:27, 29-31; 13:3-5; 17:6; 18:18-21; 19:1; 21:25 / The Military Failure of Israel (1:1-3:4); The Rescue of Israel by the Judges (3:5-16:31); The Moral Failure of Israel (17:1-21:25)

Theological Summary: The Book of Judges records the period immediately following the death of Joshua up until the establishment of Israel’s monarchy, detailing the lives of some of the elders who would lead Israel.[1] During this time of Israel’s history, the people fail to adhere to the agreement that they have made with God, they fall into sin and idolatry, and God must intervene via various “judges” or leaders who bring them back from the brink of disaster. It presents a cycle of rebellion, judgment, and repentance many times over.

The Hebrew title of Judges is Shoftim, a participle which means “those judging,” derived from Judges 2:16: “Then the LORD raised up judges who delivered them from the hands of those who plundered them.” The term shoftim could also be rendered as “chieftains.”[2] These men and women functioned as military leaders and deliverers of Israel in their times of great trial, and called them back to faith in the God they had largely abandoned. “In some respects the title of the book is a bit misleading to English readers. The ‘judges’ were not primarily judicial officials; rather, they were military leaders and clan chieftains who appeared periodically in different areas among the tribes to affect deliverance from enemies threatening parts of Israel” (Dillard and Longman).[3] Most of the judges we see in this text were local leaders and tribal rulers who were brought in to mediate major disputes.[4]

In the Christian canon, the Book of Judges is considered one of the Historical Books. In slight contrast, the Jewish canon places Judges as one of the Former Prophets,[5] as it is considered appropriate to consider the works of the judges as being prophetic, calling the people back to the Lord and His covenant. These figures “execute the judgment of God on their behalf” (Bruce, NBCR),[6] as Israel agreed to be chastised if they fell away from God’s commandments in the Torah. In Judges we see that the people have been unable to hold themselves to God’s standard, and so judges rise up to call them back to Him. Ultimately, God is asserted to be the ultimate Judge and Deliverer of Israel (11:27; cf. 8:23), even though there are a total of thirteen judges depicted in this text. In total, there were fifteen judges who led Israel, ending with Eli and Samuel.[7]

The Book of Judges portrays the constant disarray in the Land of Israel, which resulted in a great deal of Divine chastening. “Between the days of Joshua and Samuel, Israel plummeted to moral and spiritual disaster” (EXP).[8] Judges depicts a cyclical pattern of rebellion, chastisement or Divine punishment, repentance, a productive seasonal calm, followed by rebellion once again. God raises up the judges to specifically call the people back to holiness and obedience, as Israel’s call of building God’s Kingdom on Earth was not fully accomplished. Israel in Canaan was affected by the local religious beliefs. The Book of Judges candidly portrays the influence of (gross) sin upon a society that has made a definitive commitment to God and His ways, and bridges the gap between the Conquest of Canaan by Joshua and the beginning of Israel’s monarchy.

The text of Judges is divided into three major sections: a prologue (1:1-3:6), a main body detailing the deeds of the judges (3:7-16:31), and an epilogue that adds additional details (chs. 17-21). It is notable that some parts of Judges do not occur in chronological order.[9] The main body of Judges consists of a series of narrative units, depicting the various seasons of evil that the Israelites performed in the eyes of God, and how they fell out of faith with Him.[10] There are five major judges that we see in Israel, including: Ehud (3:12-30); Deborah (chs. 4-5), Gideon and his son Abimelech (chs. 6-9), Jepthath (10:6-12:7), and Samson (chs. 13-16). The epilogue ends the Book of Judges summarizing the total effect of the moral decay and corruption, cataloging some additional events that occurred during the period of the judges.

Fixing precise dates for the events of Judges can be very difficult for a number of reasons. The dating of Judges’ events is tied to the timing of the Exodus (see Exodus entry for a summarization of the conservative debates over the timing of the Exodus), and it also depends how numbers such as 10, 20, 40, and 80 are used in the text. Are these to be considered exact numbers or rounded numbers?[11] It is probably best to consider them rounded numbers, notably as “It is clear from certain parts of Judges that events occurred simultaneously” (ISBE),[12] lest we end up with a greater period of years that history and archaeology simply do not afford us.

Some conservatives date the events in Judges as occurring at the start of the Fourteenth Century B.C.E., extending to the Tenth Century B.C.E., a period of about 400 years. Other conservatives, dating the Exodus in the Thirteenth Century B.C.E., consider the period of Judges to last only about 200 years.[13] This second view places the events of Judges at the beginning of the Iron Age, and appears to be the majority opinion among evangelical Christian scholars. Either way, this would still place the earliest composition of Judges, or its sources, at the Eleventh or Tenth Century B.C.E. Most significant for any theological examination of Judges is that the interpreter cannot hold the chronology of Judges to modern, Western standards of timekeeping. Harrison makes the important point,

“[T]he total picture [of Judges], while coherent artistically, might ultimately fail to meet the exacting specifications of the modern occidental chronologist or historian. When it is remembered that ancient scribes did not draw up synchronistic tables or lists like those common today, but utilized principles of selectivity whose nature is still largely obscure, it will be seen that there is sufficient ground for restraint in approaching the problems of chronology in Judges.”[14]

Many conservative theologians will argue for some kind of literary unity in the Book of Judges. The traditional Jewish authorship of the text is given to Samuel, along with the Book(s) of Samuel (b.Bava Batra 14b).[15] As a result, many conservatives believe that Samuel is the principal compiler of the accounts of Judges, and that his successors Nathan and Gad may have edited them into a more final form (cf. 1 Chronicles 29:29). There are, however, many other conservatives who consider Samuelist authorship to be “without any historical basis” (ISBE)[16] and consider the text of Judges to be ultimately anonymous.[17] “The book makes no clear claim to authorship or date of composition” (NIDB).[18]

Some of Judges may have been written before Israel’s monarchy.[19] The text portrays the Jebusites still controlling Jerusalem (1:21), making it something that occurred before David’s capture of the city (2 Samuel 5:6-10). The Canaanites are portrayed as living in Gezer (1:29), a city captured during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 9:16).[20] “The oldest part of the book is probably the poem of Deborah. The style of the poem is in accordance with the common style of poetry at the end of the 2nd millennium” (ISBE).[21]

This does not mean that all of Judges had to be written before the monarchy. The phrase “In those days there was no king in Israel” (17:6) repeats itself several times, and is evidence that certain segments of the text were written after the establishment of the monarchy (cf. 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). Chs. 17-21 were likely composed after the establishment of the Davidic dynasty, and later edits during the time of Israel’s monarchy are definite.[22] We see a reference in 18:30 to the idolatrous worship at Dan “until the day of the captivity of the land,” which is likely a reference to the conquest of Galilee during Tiglath-Pileser III in 733 B.C.E. Furthermore, 18:31 speaks of a time before the destruction of Shiloh during the life of Samuel.[23]

Liberal theologians of the past often tried to connect the composition of Judges to the JEDP documentary hypothesis of the Torah,[24] arguing that the J and E writers were also compilers of Ancient Israel’s early history (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis). This theory, however, has largely been abandoned with the proposition of Martin Noth’s unified composition hypothesis of a “Deuteronomistic history” of Joshua-Kings.[25] Liberals today will largely adhere to this idea, and advocate that Judges was probably written during the Josianic reforms of Seventh Century B.C.E., concurrent with certain theological themes seen throughout Joshua, Samuel, and Kings.[26]

On the whole, liberals will generally advocate that Judges was written immediately before or immediately after the fall of the Southern Kingdom to Babylon, and argue that the issues that the text addresses better fit this later period than the Twelfth-Tenth Centuries B.C.E. Interestingly enough, current trends in liberal handling of Judges indicate the opinion that a connection to Deuteronomy cannot be made, and that Judges in its final form was composed in the Eighth or Seventh Century B.C.E.,[27] reflecting the shock of the Southern Kingdom to the fall of the Northern Kingdom.[28] It is then believed that Judges was adapted in some form for Joshua-Kings. Other liberals advocate that Judges was redacted twice: once prior to the exile, and then immediately after the exile.[29] Those who advocate this assert, “Rarely did the redactional activity in the body of the book invade essential contents of narratives” (ABD).[30]

The most significant problem among liberals and the text of Judges concerns the historicity of the text. Some consider Judges to be nothing more than “A remarkable collection of folklore, tribal traditions, and hero tales combined with historical fragments, theological insight, and editorial opinion” (IDBSup).[31] Many doubt that all of the events that Judges portrays were factual, although there “are likely kernels of genuine historical memory” (New Interpreter’s Study Bible).[32] “Modern research has abandoned the conservative view, which accepted the bulk of the book of Judges as historically authentic” (Jewish Study Bible).[33] Liberals often consider Judges as “essentially religious literature rather than a historical document” (IDB).[34] They view Ancient Israel as being much more primitive, nomadic, and disorganized than it is portrayed in Scripture.

Many conservatives, in response to some of the liberal views of Judges, do acknowledge the affect or influence of Deuteronomy on the text. “The historians from Joshua to 2 Kings display the ‘Deuteronomic’ philosophy of history, so called because it finds its clearest expression in Deuteronomy” (Bruce, NBCR).[35] There are conservatives, concurring with some liberals, who adhere to a unified authorship of Judges probably during the Josianic reforms of 621 B.C.E.[36] These are conservatives who are more likely to side with Noth’s hypothesis of unity between Joshua-Kings, than Judges being an extension of the JEDP hypothesis. Still, others believe “the whole idea of an ancient Deuteronomist is hypothetical and difficult to prove” (ISBE),[37] and argue for an earlier primary composition of the text.

Conservative consensus on Judges’ composition is at present unclear, as it may very well be that Judges reached its final form immediately prior to the exile.[38] We have to remember that the accounts of the judges would have originally been a part of the Southern Kingdom’s royal annals, and would not have been preserved in the same way as the Torah. Time attributed Judges its canonical and inspired state. It is important to consider, however, that we do not have to ascribe a Seventh Century original composition date to Judges, as there are parallels between the patterns of Judges’ writing and Hittite writing of the Sixteenth Century B.C.E., some 900 years or so earlier:

“A Hittite king named Telepinus, who lived about 1500 B.C., wrote a proclamation in which he reviewed the sad sequence of events that befell his disunited country. His edict established a clear law of succession to the throne to avoid civil war and chaos, two of the evils the author of Judges wanted to see eliminated from Israel” (EXP).[39]

More than anything else, conservative scholarship today is most concerned with examining Judges from a literary perspective.[40] “Viewed holistically it furnished a remarkably coherent picture of a specific age in Hebrew history, the general political, cultural, geographical, and religious aspects of which are consistent with what is now known of Palestine between 1200 and 1000 B.C.” (Harrison).[41]

The Hebrew text of Judges in its final form “has been unusually well preserved” (IDB).[42] “[T]he MT of the book of Judges is considered to be, on the whole, the best evidence for the original text…although obviously individual passages must be judged on their own merits” (IDB).[43] This indicates that since the finalization of the Masoretic Text since the Ninth-Tenth Centuries C.E. that the Hebrew has been preserved relatively intact. However, there are significant variations of Judges in the Greek Septuagint A and B versions,[44] and fragments of Judges found among the Dead Sea Scrolls will occasionally reflect an LXX reading over the MT.[45] Any variants must, by necessity, be considered on a case-by-case basis.

The dominant issue of Judges is undoubtedly the final authority and Lordship of Israel’s God. The people of Israel are called by the judges back to the covenant that they made with Him at Mount Sinai (Exodus chs. 19-24), which is reaffirmed on the plains of Moab (Deuteronomy 29), and then by Joshua at Shechem (Joshua 24). Israel has quickly forgotten that God is its King. Judges 17:6 easily summarizes[46] the problem of the people in Judges: “In those days there was no king in Israel; every man did what was right in his own eyes.” “When the nation turned to God in obedience, God graciously sent deliverers to rescue the people from oppression. When they disregarded Joshua’s warnings and worshiped the deities of Canaan, the nation came under the control of tyrants and invaders” (EXP).[47]

In order for justice to prevail, God must implement the covenant curses for the people to see their problems. In the Book of Judges, Israel stands on the verge of extinction several times. We see political disunity, infighting, external invasions, and spiritual and moral depravity. The people all fall back into familiar patterns of sins.[48] There is a great deal of intermingling and co-mingling between Israel and its neighbors. Ultimately we see that God is faithful, even though He has to frequently take His people to the brink of disaster.[49]

Many evangelical Christians today have used the Book of Judges to preach on how societies once committed to God will suffer His judgment if they do not repent. Judges certainly does show us what will happen when one compromises with the world, and clearly epitomizes much of the fallen human condition. “Every reader of the book learns that God is longsuffering and compassionate; every reader cannot but see aspects of his or her own life refracted in the characters of the narrative” (Dillard and Longman).[50] It shows that repentance and restoration are always available for the individuals who want it, and each generation must choose to consciously follow the Lord. Many of the characters in Judges are viewed by the author of Hebrews as great examples of faith (Hebrews 11:32-33).

When we look back at Judges today as Believers in Yeshua, we see examples of how powerless many of the people were without the Spirit of God. With only the Mosaic Law to largely guide them, they were unable to remain in right standing with God. The Spirit of God was principally only available to the judges and a select few. Believers today can learn the warnings that Judges gives us, and hopefully be all things—now with the Holy Spirit—that Ancient Israel was originally intended to be. The Book of Judges “is presented as a period during which the nation was being fashioned by its God in the furnace of affliction to be His chosen instrument for the furtherance of His purpose in the world” (Bruce, NBCR).[51]

Today, for whatever reason, not many Messianics choose to examine or study the Book of Judges. For those who study the Torah consistently, is it legitimate to ask whether or not the message of Deuteronomy affects the message of Judges? We cannot know this if we do not go beyond the Torah. Perhaps there are some in the Messianic movement who do not wish to examine Judges because it depicts the rebelliousness of Israel once they subdue Canaan. The harsh realities of Israel’s problems are admittedly difficult for some to acknowledge who may have romantic ideas about Israel in the Promised Land.

The Book of Judges, in no uncertain terms, depicts Israel at its worst. Israel forgets its covenant relationship and responsibilities to God. The challenges Judges presents to us as the emerging Messianic movement are whether or not we will forget the responsibilities that God has given us today, and how we will live out those responsibilities with the empowerment of the Holy Spirit. It also challenges us to do more historically conscious studies of the Scriptures, and some of the criticisms present against the Bible. Judges is a text that should force not only individuals, but the entire Body of Messiah, to become self-critical. How do we hold ourselves to God’s standard and (not) allow ourselves to be chastised—in order to be properly used by Him?

Bibliography

Amit, Yairah. “Judges,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 508-557.

Barabas, Steven. “Judges, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 555-557.

Boling, Robert G. “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1107-1117.

Bruce, F.F. “Judges,” in NBCR, pp 252-276.

Dillard, Raymond, and Tremper Longman III. “Judges,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 119-127.

Fensham, F.C. “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1156-1159.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Judges,” in Old Testament Introduction, pp 680-694.

Kraft, C.F. “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1013-1023.

McNutt, Paula M. “Judges,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 343-382.

Rogers, M.G. “Judges, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 509-514.

Wolf, Herbert. “Judges,” in EXP, 3:375-506.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Judges

[1] Herbert Wolf, “Judges,” in EXP, 3:375.

[2] F.C. Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1156; Wolf, in EXP, 3:375; Yairah Amit, “Judges,” in Jewish Study Bible, 508.

[3] Dillard and Longman, 119; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 680-681.

[4] C.F. Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1014.

[5] Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1157; Robert G. Boling, “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1107.

[6] F.F. Bruce, “Judges,” in NBCR, 252.

[7] Wolf, in EXP, 3:375.

[8] Ibid., 3:376.

[9] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1020; Amit, in Jewish Study Bible, 508.

[10] Boling, “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1107.

[11] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1020; Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158.

[12] Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158.

[13] Bruce, in NBCR, 252-253; Wolf, in EXP, 3:376.

[14] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 692.

[15] “Samuel wrote the book that is called by his name and the book of Judges and Ruth” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[16] Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 689.

[17] Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158; Wolf, in EXP, 3:377; Dillard and Longman, 120.

[18] Steven Barabas, “Judges, Book of,” in NIDB, 555.

[19] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 689.

[20] Cf. Wolf, in EXP, 3:378.

[21] Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158; cf. Boling, “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1109.

[22] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 688-689; Wolf, in EXP, 3:378.

[23] Bruce, in NBCR, 253.

[24] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1019-1020; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 682-684; Wolf, in EXP, 3:377-378; Boling, “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1114.

[25] Dillard and Longman, 122.

[26] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1019-1020; Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158; Dillard and Longman, pp 120-121; Amit, in Jewish Study Bible, 509.

[27] Amit, in Jewish Study Bible, 344.

[28] M.G. Rogers, “Judges, Book of,” in IDBSup, 510.

[29] Rogers, “Judges, Book of,” in IDBSup, 514; Boling, “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1114.

[30] Boling, “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1113.

[31] Rogers, “Judges, Book of,” in IDBSup, 509.

[32] Paula M. McNutt, “Judges,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 343; cf. Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1022.

[33] Amit, in Jewish Study Bible, 510.

[34] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1013.

[35] Bruce, in NBCR, 253; cf. Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158.

[36] Bruce, in NBCR, 253; Dillard and Longman, 121.

[37] Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1158.

[38] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1022.

[39] Wolf, in EXP, 3:379; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 685-686.

[40] Dillard and Longman, 123.

[41] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 689.

[42] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1014.

[43] Ibid.

[44] Kraft, “Judges, Book of,” in IDB, 2:1014; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 693-694; Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:1158-1159; Dillard and Longman, 123.

[45] Wolf, in EXP, 3:380.

[46] Boling, “Judges, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1107.

[47] Wolf, in EXP, 3:378.

[48] Wolf, in EXP, 3:376; Dillard and Longman, pp 124-125.

[49] Fensham, “Judges, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1159; EXP, 3:378; Dillard and Longman, 127.

[50] Dillard and Longman, 119.

[51] Bruce, in NBCR, 254.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON JUDGES:

1. What is the single, most important issue that seems to repeat itself throughout the Book of Judges?

2. How significant do you believe it is that Deborah, a woman, served as a judge over Israel?

3. Summarize the important aspects of Gideon’s service to Israel.

4. What do you think is to be learned from the example of Abimelech?

5. Summarize the important aspects of Samson’s service to Israel.

6. Is there any scene in Judges that strikes you as significant, intriguing, or odd?

7. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Judges?

REFLECTION ON JUDGES’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Judges:

BOOKS OF SAMUEL

Approximate date: 970-800s B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); before 586 B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate, some Left); mid-to-late 500s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: rise of Israel’s monarchy via the establishment of Kings Saul and David

Author: Samuel (Right); Israel’s court historians and further editors (conservative-moderate); Israel’s court historians or an unknown exile from the Southern Kingdom (Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel (Right, some conservative-moderate); Jerusalem, Babylon, and/or Land of Israel (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel during the Davidic and/or Solomonic monarchy (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish religious leaders during the reign of King Josiah and/or Jewish exiles living in Babylon or returning from Babylon (Left)

People:

Elkannah, Hannah, Peninnah, Hophni, Phinehas, Eli, Samuel, Philistines, Ichabod, Dagon (deity), Abinadab, Eleazar, Baals and Ashtoreths (deities), Amorites, Joel, Abijah, Kish, Saul, Matri, Nahash the Ammonite, Jonathan, Ahijah (son of Ichabod), Ammonites, kings of Zobah, Amalekites, Ishvi, Malki-Shua, Merab, Michal, Ahinoam (daughter of Ahimaaz), Abner (son of Ner), Abiel, Kenites, Agag, Jesse, Eliab, Abinadab (a son of Jesse), Shammah, David, Goliath, Adriel, Ahimelech, Doeg the Edomite, Achish, Gad (prophet), Abiathar (son of Ahimelech), Nabal, Abigail, Ahinoam, Paltiel (son of Laish), Ziphites, Ahimelech the Hittite, Achish, Geshurites, Girzites, Jerameelites, Ish-Bosheth, Zeruiah’s sons (Joab, Abishai, Asahel), sons born to David (Amnon, Kileab, Absalom, Adonijah, Shephatiah, Ithream), Maacah (daughter of Talmai), Haggith, Abital, Eglah, Rizpah (daughter of Aiah), Baanah, Recab, Mephibosheth, Jebusites, Hiram, more children born to David (Shammua, Shobab, Nathan, Solomon, Ibhar, Elishua, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama, Eliada, Eliphet), sons of Abinadab (Uzzah and Ahio), Obed-Edom, Nathan (prophet), Moabites, Hadadezer, Arameans, Toi (Tou), Joram, Edomites, Jehoshaphat (son of Ahilud), Zadok (son of Ahitub), Seraiah, Benaiah (son of Jehoiada), Ziba, Kerethites, Pelethites, Ziba, Makir (son of Ammiel), Mica, Hanun (son of Nahash), Shobach, Bathsheba (daughter of Eliam), Uriah the Hittite, Rabbah, Tamar, Jonab (son of Shimeah), Talmai (son of Ammihud), Tamar (daughter of Absalom), Ahithophel, Ittai, Hushai the Arkite, Ahimaaz (son of Zadok), Jonathan (son of Abiathar), Shimei (son of Nahash), Makir (son of Ammiel), Barzillai, Kimham, Sheba (son of Bicri), Adoniram, Sheva, Ira the Jairite, Armoni and Mephibosheth (sons of Aiah’s daughter Rizpah), Ishbi-Benob, Rapha, Sibbelai, Saph, Elhanan (son of Jaare-Oregim), David’s mighty men (2 Samuel 23:8-39), Araunah the Jebusite

People mentioned:

Pharaoh, Egyptians, Rachel, Moses, Aaron, Jacob, Sisera, Jerub-Baal, Barak, Jephthah, Abimelech (son of Jerub-Besheth)

Places:

Ramathaim, hill country of Ephraim, Shiloh, Ramah, Dan, Beersheba, Ebenezer, Aphek, Ashdod, Gath, Ekron, Beth Shemesh, field of Joshua, Ashkelon, Gaza, Kiriath-Jearim, Mizpah, Beth Car, Bethel, Gilgal, Shalisha, Shaalim, Zuph, Zelzah, Tabor, Gibeah, Jabesh Gilead, Bezek, Geba, Micmash, Beth Aven, Jordan, land of Gad, Ophrah, Shual, Beth Horon, Valley of Zeboim, Migron, Bozez (cliff), Seneh (cliff), Moab, Telaim, Amalek, Havilah, Shur, Bethlehem, Ephes-Dammin, Socoh, Azekah, Valley of Elah, Shaaraim, Meholah, Naioth, Secu, Ezel (stone), Nob, cave of Adullam, forest of Hereth, Keilah, Desert of Ziph, Horesh, Desert of Maon, Arabah, Jeshimon, Sela Hammahlekoth, En Gedi, Crags of the Wild Goats, Carmel, Jezreel, Gallim, hill of Hakilah, Jeshimon, Ziklag, Shunem, Gilboah, Endor, Aphek, Negev, Besor Ravine, Ramoth Negev, Jattir, Aroer, Siphmoth, Eshtemoa, Racal, Bor Ashan, Athach, Hebron, Beth Shan, Jabesh, Mahanaim, Gilead, Ashuri, Gibeon, Geshur, Bahurim, well of Sirah, Beeroth, Jerusalem (Zion), Tyre, Valley of Rephaim, Baal Perazim, Baalah, threshing floor of Nacon, Perez Uzzah, Metheg Ammah, Zobah, Euphrates River, Damascus, Tebah, Berothai, Hamath, Valley of Salt, Helam, Rabbah, Thebez, Baal Hazor, Tekoa, Aram, Giloh, Kidron Valley, Mount of Olives, En Rogel, Lo Debar, Rogelim, Abel Beth Maacah, Zela, Tahtim Hodshi, Dan Jaan, Sidon

Places mentioned:

Egypt, Hazor

Key Themes and Events:

1 Samuel: Hannah asks God to give her a child, and Samuel is born / Hannah takes Samuel to Shiloh, and he is dedicated for the service of the Lord / Hannah prays a special prayer to the Lord / Samuel is left to the care of Eli the priest / the corruption of Eli’s sons is detailed, including: improper appropriation from the meat of sacrificed animals and sexual improprieties / negative words are delivered against the House of Eli because of its corruption / the Lord calls out to Samuel while he sleeps in the Tabernacle complex / the Israelites are defeated in a battle against the Philistines / Hophni and Phinehas bring the Ark of the Covenant to the battlefield / the Israelites are defeated a second time, only worse / the Ark of the Covenant is captured by the Philistines, and Hophni and Phinehas die on the battlefield / Eli dies upon hearing the bad news / Phinehas’ wife goes into distressful, dying childbirth, delivering Ichabod / the Philistine god Dagon bows down before the Ark of the Covenant, and bows down a second time with his head and arms having fallen off / the people of Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron all break out in tumors as the Ark of the Covenant is moved between them / the Philistines agree to send the Ark of the Covenant back to the Israelites, because of the plague that it has unleashed upon them / a tribute of five gold tumors and five gold rats is sent with the Ark / seventy Israelite men of Beth Shemesh die for looking into the Ark / the Ark of the Covenant comes to the home of Abinadab / Samuel is set as judge-leader over Israel / Israel experiences military victories over the Philistines, after turning away from idolatry / the people of Israel want a king to lead them, and the Lord tells Samuel they have rejected Him / Samuel tells Israel the consequences that will ensue for demanding a king / Saul is anointed as king over Israel / Saul rescues the city of Jabesh from the assault of the Ammonites / Saul’s kingship is reaffirmed in Gilgal / Samuel gives a farewell speech to Israel, summarizing what has happened with the rise of its new monarchy / Samuel tells Saul that his dynasty will not last because he acts presumptuously with the burnt and fellowship offerings / Israel finds itself without weapons before the Philistines / Jonathan and his armor-bearer are able to kill a significant number of Philistines / the Philistine force flees / Jonathan eats honey, not realizing that his father King Saul has prohibited his forces from eating food that day / Saul’s reign is bereft with conflicts with the Philistines / Saul is rejected by God as king of Israel, because he did not completely eliminate the Amalekites / the Lord tells Samuel to go to Jesse in Bethlehem / the Lord tells Samuel not to look at the outward appearance of Jesse’s sons / David plays his harp for Saul, being tormented by an evil spirit / David becomes one of Saul’s armor-bearers / the giant Goliath taunts the Israelites / Jesse sends David with supplies for his brothers on the front lines against the Philistines / David kills Goliath with a rock hurled from a slingshot / the Philistine army is routed away / King Saul promotes David in his army / King Saul becomes jealous of David’s fame / David is sent away on military campaigns / King Saul hopes David will die in battle / King Saul gives his daughter Michal to David in marriage, hoping she will be a snare leading to his downfall / Jonathan warns David that Saul wants him dead / Michal helps David escape as men are sent by Saul to kill him / David escapes to meet with the Prophet Samuel / Jonathan discovers that his father Saul is truly intent to kill David / David and his men are fed with the Bread of the Presence by Ahimelech / David escapes to Gath, purposefully acting like a madman so that the Philistines would not harm him / David has his parents sent away to Moab for their protection / Saul has the priests of Nob killed because they gave aid to David, even though Ahimelech testifies of David’s loyalty to him / David saves Keilah from the Philistines / Saul pursues David throughout the desert, and Jonathan warns his friend / David cuts off a corner of Saul’s robe, while he rests in a cave while near En Gedi / David is distressed over why Saul wants to kill him / David swears to Saul that he will not wipe out either him or his family / Samuel dies / Nabal is not gracious to David when he extends him greetings / Nabal’s wife Abigail extends refreshments to David’s men / David takes Abigail as a wife, following the death of her husband / David is given another chance to kill Saul while he pursues him in the desert, yet spares his life again / David and his men live in the land of the Philistines, so Saul will not kill them / Saul consults a necromancing woman at Endor, who calls up Samuel from Sheol / Achish asks David and his men to leave the Philistine army, lest the Philistine commanders think that he will turn against them / Ziklag is plundered by Amalekites while David is gone / David is able to recapture what was stolen from him, including his wives / Saul’s battle with the Philistines did not go well, with his three sons being killed / Saul falls on his sword, committing suicide / Saul’s body is cremated to prevent abuse by the Philistines / 2 Samuel: David is told of Saul’s death from an Amalekite who testifies to killing him / David has the Amalekite killed for striking down God’s anointed / David composes a lamentful poem to remember the fall of Saul and Jonathan / David is anointed king over Judah at Hebron / Abner makes Ish-Bosheth king over the rest of Israel / a civil war breaks out between those loyal to David and those loyal to Saul / Abner strengthens his position among those loyal to Saul, so much that Ish-Bosheth fears him / Abner sends David his wife Michal / Joab kills Abner to avenge the death of his brother / David sings a lament for the death of Abner / Ish-Bosheth is murdered while in bed / David has Ish-Bosheth’s assassins put to death / David is recognized as king over all Israel at Hebron / David conquers the city of Jerusalem, and makes it his capital / Hiram king of Tyre has a palace built for David / David defeats the Philistines on the battlefield / the Ark of the Covenant is carried on a cart, and Uzzah is struck dead for trying to stabilize it / David dances before the Lord as the Ark of the Covenant is brought to Jerusalem / Michal despises David for dancing as though he were a commoner / God promises King David that he will have an enduring dynasty / King David prays before the Lord in response to His promises to him / the Lord grants David a succession of military victories / David shows kindness to Mephibosheth / the Ammonites become subject to David’s rule / David impregnates the already-married Bathsheba / David sends Uriah to the frontlines to die / after Uriah dies, David takes Bathsheba as one of his wives / Nathan rebukes David for stealing Bathsheba from Uriah / David recognizes the horrible sin he has committed / Bathsheba’s child dies, and David laments horribly / Tamar is raped by her half-brother Amnon / Absalom kills his half-brother Amnon for raping Tamar / Absalom flees to the king of Geshur / Absalom returns to Jerusalem / a conspiracy centered around Absalom strengthens / David and his court are forced to flee Jerusalem because of Absalom / Ziba, a servant of Mephibosheth, is given Mephibosheth’s estate by David / Shimei, a relative of Saul, curses and harasses David / Absalom has relations with David’s concubines / Absalom pursues his father into the desert / King David is provided with stores while hiding out / Absalom’s forces are defeated by King David’s forces / Absalom’s hair got him caught in a tree, and he is killed by Joab / David mourns over the death of his son Absalom / David returns to Jerusalem, and finds Mephibosheth who tells him that Ziba has betrayed him, as he is loyal to David / Sheba the Benjamite leads an insurrection in Israel against David / Joab prepares to besiege Abel Beth Maacah, but is stopped when its inhabitants send him the head of Sheba / the Gibeonites are avenged when David sends them seven of Saul’s descendants / Saul and Jonathan’s remains are exhumed and moved to Benjamin / Israel under King David experiences more victories against the Philistines / David’s song of praise for deliverance against Saul and his other enemies is given (in the text) / the last words (praise?) of David are given (in the text) / David’s mighty men and some of their exploits are detailed / the Lord is angered by David who intends to take a census of Israel’s fighting men / a plague is sent upon Israel for David allowing the census / David purchases the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite

Key Scriptures: 1 Samuel 1:10-11, 27-28; 2:1-2; 5:1-5; 6:19-20; 8:6-9, 19; 12:12-15, 21-25; 13:11-14; 14:25-30, 44; 15:7-10, 13-23; 16:7; 17:33-37, 45-50; 18:7-9; 21:10-11; 22:13-17; 23:15-18; 24:3-7, 16-22; 26:8-11, 13-17; 28:12-20; 2 Samuel 1:23-27; 3:31-34; 4:9-12; 5:1-3; 6:20-23; 7:11-16, 22-26; 9:6-10; 12:1-10; 18:33-19:4, 24-30; 22:2-3, 31-32, 47-51 / Eli and Samuel (1 Samuel 1:1-7:17); Samuel and Saul (1 Samuel 8:1-15:35); Saul and David (1 Samuel 16:1-31:13) / David’s Successes (2 Samuel 1:1-10:19); David’s Struggles (2 Samuel 11:1-24:25)

Theological Summary: The Books of 1&2 Samuel are named for the Prophet Shmuel whom God used to establish Israel’s monarchy. It is largely an account of three individuals: Samuel as Israel’s last judge, Saul as Israel’s first king, and David as Israel’s greatest king. The Prophet Samuel anointed both Saul and David, and his role in this period of Israel’s history is similar to that of Moses several centuries earlier (Psalm 99:6; Jeremiah 15:1). The Books of 1&2 Samuel tell us a great deal about the human condition as lived out in the lives of political figures. 1&2 Samuel depict a type of kingship unique to the Ancient Near East, where kings were often absolute rulers. With the examples of Saul and David, we see that a delicate balance existed between Israel’s monarchs and the religious authorities,[1] making the king accountable to God.

Samuel was originally a single book, but became divided in two by the Third-Second Centuries B.C.E. by the translators of the Greek Septuagint.[2] This likely occurred because the Greek translation of the Hebrew required two scrolls instead of one.[3] The division of Samuel into two books started appearing in standardized Hebrew texts in the Fifteenth-Sixteenth Centuries C.E.,[4] possibly to accommodate Christians in Europe.[5] The division between 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel occurs naturally as King Saul dies and the reign of King David begins.

Throughout history this text has actually had a variety of names. The Septuagint originally used the designation Bibloi Basileōn or Books of the Kings for what we today consider 1&2 Samuel and 1&2 Kings, dividing them into 1, 2, 3, and 4 Kings. This pattern was also followed by Jerome in his Latin Vulgate translation, as he designated them Libri Regum. Over time, however, the most common designation became 1&2 Samuel.[6]

In the Jewish canon the Books of Samuel are placed among the Former Prophets, and they appear right after Judges. In the Christian canon, following the order of the LXX, 1&2 Samuel are placed in the Histories.

Many hypotheses have been proposed for the composition of 1&2 Samuel. Jewish tradition in the Talmud ascribes authorship to the Prophet Samuel (b.Bava Batra 14b),[7] but exclusive authorship has extreme problems considering that the events of 1 Samuel chs. 25-31 and all of 2 Samuel occur after his death.[8] It is notable, though, that Samuel was a writer (1 Chronicles 29:29), and he may have had a hand in composing some of the sources that would have been used in a book that bears his name.[9] Some consider that the Prophets Nathan and Gad could have been later compilers of the sources for Samuel (b.Bava Batra 15a);[10] based on the testimony of 1 Chronicles 29:29:

“Now the acts of King David, from first to last, are written in the chronicles of Samuel the seer, in the chronicles of Nathan the prophet and in the chronicles of Gad the seer.”

Another possible source for Samuel includes what would have become 2 Samuel 9-1 Kings 2, the so-called “succession narrative.”

If Samuel, Nathan, and Gad composed various accounts of Saul and David’s kingships, these independent sources in Israel’s court history could have later been edited together.[11] Whoever was the ultimate author or editor of 1&2 Samuel would have needed access to records detailing the lives of Samuel, Saul, and David. It is fair for us to assume that Samuel and some of the other prophets had more influence on the text than is commonly assumed, even if they are not responsible for its final form.[12] Ultimately, many conservative scholars are forced to conclude that the author of Samuel must be considered anonymous,[13] with many placing it at the feet of Israel’s court historians.[14] Even though Jewish tradition ascribes authorship to Samuel, it is notable that the author does not identify himself in the text. Attributing the name of Samuel to these books comes as an attribution of honor.

There are some varied independent sources that may have been used in the composition of Samuel that are proposed by various conservatives. Some consider a non-extant Book of Jashar to be such an independent source (2 Samuel 1:18), even though Jewish scholarship largely holds “the Book of Uprightness” (ATS) to be the Torah. The author of Chronicles references “the account of the chronicles of King David” (1 Chronicles 27:24), as well as the chronicles of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad (1 Chronicles 29:29). Many of these potential sources probably included first hand accounts, and the author of Samuel demonstrates a knowledge of being an historian himself.

Chronologically, the events of 1&2 Samuel take place over a period of about 200 years, at the beginning of the Eleventh Century B.C.E. to the end of the Tenth Century B.C.E. Many conservatives advocate that Samuel was written at the end of David’s life, and prior to or during the reign of Solomon,[15] placing it at the end of the Tenth Century B.C.E. Some have noted that the text tends to favor the Southern Kingdom of Judah over the Northern Kingdom of Israel,[16] leading some conservatives to believe that Samuel was written in the Ninth Century B.C.E. after the division of Israel. Regardless of whether Samuel was composed in the Tenth or Ninth Century B.C.E., the audience that would have received this text would have a document legitimizing the reign of King David and his dynasty (1 Samuel 16:13).

As with many Biblical texts, there are some chronological uncertainties, and some events may not be given in a strict sequential order.[17] Some events are repeated not because they are different, but possibly because their perspectives are different or supplementary information is added later.[18] The Books of Chronicles often attempt to reconcile the differences. Some perceived differences may be on account of varied textual traditions where the Hebrew MT is incomplete.[19]

Liberal theologians today largely consider 1&2 Samuel to be among the so-called Deuterononomistic Histories (DH) of Joshua, Judges, and Kings, following the lead of Martin Noth.[20] There are a few conservatives who believe that Samuel reached its final form along with these texts,[21] possibly before the Babylonian exile, but often use “Deuteronomic” to describe the influence of Deuteronomy on the text, not that it was written after or during the exile.[22] Noth advocated that the DH were written to call Israel to repentance during the reforms of Josiah in the Seventh Century B.C.E. as a single work, recalling the “glory years” that the people should return to. Most liberals today continue to agree with Noth’s DH proposition, with some moderate variance.[23] Some liberals argue for literary unity of 1&2 Samuel, especially with 1&2 Kings,[24] and date the text immediately prior to, during, or after the Southern Kingdom’s exile to Babylon. Only a few liberals believe in a dating immediately after the time of David.[25]

Earlier liberals tried to import elements of the JEDP documentary hypothesis (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis) of the Torah into Samuel,[26] claiming that the (perceived) contradictions in Samuel can only be solved by understanding the sources behind the text, probably the same sources behind the Pentateuch. This view has largely died out in favor of Noth’s hypothesis of DH unity.[27] Conservatives have frequently responded to these views by asserting that there is unity of language and style throughout Samuel,[28] and that harmonization of the text can be accomplished by a closer reading.

Liberal positions on the historicity of 1&2 Samuel vary, with some believing that it presents an accurate portrayal, and others believing that the text has been grossly exaggerated to cast David in too positive a light.[29] Conservatives generally counter this by noting that 2 Samuel reflects on the largely dysfunctional nature of David’s family, and presents him as a human being with real human problems. It is notable that historically the rise of the Davidic monarchy took place when no major superpower overshadowed the Land of Israel, easily allowing Israel to become a regional force.

Both liberals and conservatives recognize that there are some serious textual problems in the Hebrew MT of Samuel,[30] with some considering it to be “the worst of the OT books,” even though “it is not evident to the ordinary reader” (IDBSup).[31] Samuel “has suffered from extensive textual corruption, particularly in the omission of words or phrases” (ISBE).[32] A notable one appears in 1 Samuel 13:1, where the MT simply says “Saul was ... years old when he became king, and he reigned over Israel two years” (NJPS). A few versions supply “thirty” (NASU, NIV) as a guess as to Saul’s age.

Some passages in various English translations of Samuel have to be supplemented with information from parallel texts in Psalms, Chronicles, and ancient versions such as the Greek Septuagint,[33] Dead Sea Scrolls, or even information from Josephus’ Antiquities of the Jews. Notable among these sources is the LXX, which some consider to be “an indispensable source for the text of Samuel” (Flanagan and Brueggemann, ABD),[34] frequently expanding the text where the Hebrew leaves the reader puzzled by incomplete statements.[35] Many Christian Bibles will provide supplementary information from the LXX when the Hebrew is unclear, whereas Jewish versions will often just indicate textual difficulties in margin notes. The Septuagint version of Samuel likely reflects an older, non-extant Hebrew text that was considerably longer than the present MT.[36]

1 Samuel largely details the establishment of Israel’s monarchy led by a human king, and the events that necessitated it. The birth of Samuel (1 Samuel chs. 1-3) foreshadows the events which are to take place. The ark narratives (1 Samuel chs. 4-6) describe Israel’s battling with the Philistines, and how the Ark of the Covenant is stolen several times. Samuel as a judge of Israel (1 Samuel 7) calls Israel to repentance, and they experience victory over the Philistines.

After this takes place, the narratives of 1 Samuel chs. 8-12 describe the establishment of the monarchy, and how there is some tension. On the one hand, Samuel is told by God to give the people a king (1 Samuel 8:7, 9, 22; 9:16-17), but on the other hand Israel’s desire for a king is considered to be a rejection of God (1 Samuel 8:7; 10:19; 12:12, 17, 19-20). Moses himself had anticipated Israel’s desire for a human king (Deuteronomy 17:14-20), but this was not to take place at the expense of Israel rejecting God as its Great King.

A Benjamite named Saul is brought to Samuel and is chosen to be Israel’s first king (1 Samuel chs. 9-10), and he begins his reign at Gilgal (1 Samuel chs. 11-12). Challenges arise when the people of Israel have to choose between ultimate loyalty to this new human king or to the Lord. Saul himself has difficulty as a king who must answer to God (1 Samuel chs. 13-15). He refuses to destroy the Amalekites at His command, and as a result is rejected as Israel’s king (1 Samuel 15:23).

1 Samuel concludes with God choosing David to be Saul’s successor (1 Samuel chs. 16-31), and the conflict that steadily arose between Saul and David. It culminates in the death of Saul and two of his sons, including David’s close friend Jonathan.

2 Samuel continues the narrative of David, and focuses extensively on his kingship. 2 Samuel chs. 1-4 detail how he is gradually accepted as king by the tribes of Israel. David captures the city of Jerusalem and makes it his royal residence (2 Samuel 5:13-16), later bringing the Ark of the Covenant to the city (2 Samuel 6; Psalm 132:3-5). David’s rule and influence expands from Egypt in the south to the Euphrates River in the north (2 Samuel 8). David is told by the Prophet Nathan that he is not permitted to build a permanent house for the Lord, as God is the One who would build him a house or dynasty (2 Samuel 7). The institution of the Davidic Covenant is a theme that we see emphasized numerous times by the Prophets who predict the coming of a King who will perfectly fulfill the role that David models.

2 Samuel chs. 10-20 detail the darker aspects of David’s reign. We see his sin of adultery with Bathsheba, the leniency he has toward his wicked sons and with family squabblings, and the rebellion of Absalom. 2 Samuel 22:31-51 ends with David praising the Lord.

The Books of 1&2 Samuel have much to teach us about God’s involvement in politics and what good government actually is. The dilemma that anyone faces is how one can be loyal to both God and the state, understanding how He is directly involved with human rulers as He is with the rise of Saul and David to power. These are two kings whose personal characteristics can be easily compared and contrasted. We can also see that although David is a very godly man, he is also a man of war and can easily fall prey to sin. The king’s family serves as a model—whether good or bad—to the nation. While 1&2 Samuel can often be viewed as “Sunday school” material, this text has a great deal to tell us about the human condition that cannot be ignored. “As a rule, human beings, not God, occupy the central stage, their lot being determined by their conduct” (Jewish Study Bible).[37]

The common themes seen in 1&2 Samuel are undoubtedly employed in the Apostolic Scriptures, and form a major part of the worldview of Yeshua and His Apostles. Even though Samuel is not directly quoted in the New Testament, its figures are mentioned quite regularly. 1&2 Samuel have proven to be a rich resource “for countless sermons, lectures, and lessons throughout the centuries” (EXP).[38] Both the Jewish and Christian theological traditions have always had a high regard for the message of Samuel.

When interpreting 1&2 Samuel today, it is very important that we keep in mind that this text represents a pre-exilic perspective of Israel’s monarchy and King David. We cannot forget the passing influence of Deuteronomy on the message of Samuel,[39] and the fact that Samuel helps lay the groundwork for the ideas of Messianism and an Anointed King who will save Israel.[40] The Books of Samuel are an excellent place to see Israel asserting itself as a regional power. The question they must continually answer in order to be a blessed power is whether or not they will obey God.

There is not a great deal of examination of all of 1&2 Samuel in today’s Messianic movement, even though it is an excellent place for one to see the “Torah in action” on a national scale with the establishment of Israel’s monarchy. Any Messianic handling of Samuel, however, will have to take into account varied literary factors, the role of the Septuagint and Dead Sea Scrolls in complimenting the Hebrew MT, as well as the various historical criticisms against its message. It will also ask us many questions about loyalty not only to God and to state, but how we can balance loyalty to our native countries and maintain a high regard for Israel. Perhaps most importantly, Messianic Believers have a profound opportunity to teach on and learn about the human condition when examining Samuel, and how obedience to God is imperative to living a happy, productive life.

Bibliography

Bar-Efrat, Shimon. “First Samuel,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 558-618.

_______________. “Second Samuel,” in Ibid., pp 619-667.

DeVries, Carl E. “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, pp 893-894.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Samuel,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 135-147.

Flanagan, James. W., and Walter Brueggemann. “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:957-973.

Grizzard, Carol. “1 Samuel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 391-438.

____________. “2 Samuel,” in Ibid., pp 439-477.

Harrison, R.K. “The Books of Samuel,” in Old Testament Introduction, pp 695-718.

Klein, R.W. “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:312-320.

Payne, D.F. “1 and 2 Samuel,” in NBCR, pp 284-319.

Szikszai, S. “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:202-209.

Tsevat, M. “Samuel, I and II,” in IDBSup, pp 777-781.

Youngblood, Ronald F. “1,2 Samuel,” in EXP, 3:553-1104.

ENDNOTES FOR Books of Samuel

[1] Shimon Bar-Efrat, “First Samuel,” in Jewish Study Bible, 559.

[2] James. W. Flanagan and Walter Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:957; Carl E. DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.

[3] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:957; Carol Grizzard, “1 Samuel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 391.

[4] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.

[5] S. Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:203; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 695; D.F. Payne, “1 and 2 Samuel,” in NBCR, 284; R.W. Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:313.

[6] Ronald F. Youngblood, “1,2 Samuel,” in EXP, 3:553.

[7] “Samuel wrote the book that is called by his name and the book of Judges and Ruth” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[8] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.

[9] Payne, in NBCR, 284.

[10] “Samuel wrote the book that is called by his name and the book of Judges and Ruth: But is it not written, ‘Now Samuel was dead’ (1Sa. 28:3)? Gad the seer and Nathan the prophet finished it” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 709; Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:313; Youngblood, in EXP, 3:554.

[11] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:315.

[12] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:554.

[13] Dillard and Longman, 136.

[14] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:314.

[15] Payne, in NBCR, 284.

[16] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 709.

[17] Payne, in NBCR, 286.

[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 701-708.

[19] Ibid., 708.

[20] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:317; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 697; Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:959-960; Dillard and Longman, pp 139-140.

[21] Payne, in NBCR, 284.

[22] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:556-557; Dillard and Longman, 136.

[23] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:966.

[24] M. Tsevat, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDBSup, 777.

[25] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.

[26] Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:204-208; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 697; Tsevat, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDBSup, pp 778-780.

[27] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:959.

[28] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.

[29] Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:209.

[30] Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:209; Youngblood, in EXP, 3:559-560.

[31] Tsevat, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDBSup, 777.

[32] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:313.

[33] Payne, in NBCR, 285.

[34] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:958.

[35] Dillard and Longman, pp 143-145.

[36] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 708, 717-718.

[37] Bar-Efrat, in Jewish Study Bible, 558.

[38] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:559.

[39] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:556; Dillard and Longman, 145.

[40] Dillard and Longman, pp 146-147.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON SAMUEL:

1. Summarize what you consider to be the most important or the most impactful events of Samuel’s life.

2. What happened when the Philistines captured the Ark of the Covenant?

3. What were some of the successes of King Saul’s early reign?

4. Why was Saul rejected as king by God?

5. What do you believe is significant about David’s selection as Israel’s king?

6. What was the ongoing conflict that existed between King Saul and David? Compare and contrast their attitudes toward one another.

7. Why does David not go ahead and kill King Saul?

8. How did King Saul finally fall from power?

9. What were some of the early challenges with David ascending to power in Israel?

10. What do you believe are some of the most important military victories King David experienced?

11. Why do you believe King David showed Mephibosheth great kindness?

12. What was the sin David committed with Bathsheba? How does this possibly reflect on the rest of his home life?

13. Summarize the sin of Amnon, and Absalom’s later actions. What did this do to David’s kingship?

14. Upon reviewing the life of King David, why do you believe he is commonly known as a “man after God’s own heart?”

15. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of 1&2 Samuel?

REFLECTION ON SAMUEL’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Books of Samuel:

BOOKS OF KINGS

Approximate date: before 562 B.C.E. (Right; some conservative-moderate; some Left); mid-to-late 500s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate; some Left)

Time period: Solomon’s reign, the division of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms, and their judgment and dispersion

Author: Jeremiah (Right); Israel’s court historians and further editors (some conservative-moderate); an unidentified prophet or an unknown exile from the Southern Kingdom (some conservative-moderate; Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel (Right, some conservative-moderate); Jerusalem, Babylon, and/or Land of Israel (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel during the Divided monarchy (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish religious leaders during the reign of King Josiah and/or Jewish exiles living in Babylon or returning from Babylon (Left)

People:

David, Abishag, Adonijah, Haggith, Joab (son of Zeruiah), Abiathar the priest, Zadok the priest, Benaiah (son of Jehoiada), Nathan, Shimei (son of Gera), Rei, Solomon, Bathsheba, Kerethites, Pelethites, Jonathan (son of Abiathar), Achish (son of Maacah), Solomon’s officials (1 Kings 4:2-6), Solomon’s governors (1 Kings 4:8-19), Philistines, those whom Solomon was more wise than (1 Kings 4:31-32), Hiram, Sidonians, Adoniram, men of Gebal, Huram, Jakin and Boaz (the Temple pillars), Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites, Jebusites, queen of Sheba, Arabian kings, Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Ashtoreth (deity), Molech (deity), Chemosh (deity), Hadad, Queen Tahpenes, Genubath, Rezon (son of Eliada), Hadadezer (king of Zobah), Jeroboam (son of Nebat), Zeruah, Ahijah, Shishak, Rehoboam, Shemaiah, Josiah, Abijah (son of Jeroboam), Naamah, Abijam, Maacah (daughter of Abishalom), Asa, Baasha, Ben-Hadad (son of Tabrimmon, son of Hezion), Jehoshaphat, Nadab (son of Jeroboam), Jehu (son of Hannai), Elah, Zimri, Arza, Omri, Tibni (son of Ganath), Shemer, Ahab, Jezebel (daughter of Ethbaal), Hiel, Abiram, Segub, Elijah, widow of Zarephath, Obadiah, Hazael, Jehu (son of Nimshi), Elisha (son of Shaphat), Naboth the Jezreelite, Micaiah (son of Imlah), Zedekiah (son of Kenaanah), Ahaziah, Azubah (daughter of Shilhi), Jehoram, Baal-Zebub (deity), Joram, Jehoram, Mesha, Gehazi, Naaman, Rimmon (deity), Ahaziah (Southern Kingdom), Athaliah, Jehu (son of Jehoshaphat, son of Nimshi), Bidkar, Jehonadab (son of Recab), Jehosheba, Joash, Jehoiada (priest), Mattan, Ziblah, Beth Milo, Jozabad (son of Shimeath), Jehozabad (son of Shomer), Amaziah, Jehoash, Jeroboam (II), Jehoaddin, Jonah (son of Ammitai), Yaudi (person or place, debated), Zechariah, Azariah/Uzziah, Jecoliah, Jotham, Shallum (son of Jabesh), Menahem (son of Gadi), Pul/Tiglath-Pileser III, Pekahiah, Peka (son of Remaliah), Argob, Arieh, Hoshea (son of Elah), Jerusha (daughter of Zadok), Rezin, Ahaz (son of Jotham), Uriah (priest), Hezekiah, Abi (daughter of Zechariah), Shalmanezer, Adrammelech (deity), Anammelech (deity), Nehushtan (bronze serpent), Sennacherib, Eliakim (son of Hilkiah), Shebna, Joah (son of Asaph), Isaiah (son of Amoz), Tirhakah, Nisroch (deity), Adrammelech (Assyrian prince), Shadrezer, Esarhaddon, Merodach-Baladan, Baladan, Manasseh, Hephzibah, Amon, Meshullemeth (daughter of Heruz), Josiah (king), Jedidah (daughter of Adaiah), Shaphan (son of Azaliah, son of Meshullam), Hilkiah (priest), Acbor (son of Micaiah), Asaiah, Huldah (wife of Shallum, son of Tikvah, son of Harhas), Nathan-Melech, Neco, Jehoahaz, Hamutal (daughter of Jeremiah), Eliakim (son of Josiah)/Jehoiakim, Zebidah (daughter of Pedaiah), Nebuchadnezzar, Jehoiachin, Nehushta (daughter of Elnathan), Mattaniah/Zedekiah, Nebuzaradan, Seraiah (priest), Zephaniah (priest), Gedaliah (son of Ahikam, son of Shaphan), surviving army officers (2 Kings 25:23-24), Evil-Merodach

People mentioned:

Absalom, Abner (son of Ner), Amasa (son of Jether), sons of Barzillai, house of Eli, Uriah the Hittite, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses

Places:

Stone of Zoheleth, En Rogel, Gihon, Gilead, Bahurim, Jordan, Hebron, Jerusalem, Kidron Valley, Gath, Gibeon, Egypt, Tiphsah, Gaza, Dan, Beersheba, Lebanon, Tyre, Sukkoth, Zarethan, Lebo Hamath, Wadi of Egypt, Galilee, Land of Cabul, Hazor, Megiddo, Lower Beth Horon, Baalath, Tadmor, Ezion Geber, Elath, Edom, Red Sea, Ophir, Kue, Moab, Midian, Paran, Damascus, Aram, Zeredah, Shechem, Peniel, Bethel, Dan, Samaria, Tirzah, Ramah, Ijon, Abel Beth Maacah, Kinnereth, Geba, Gibbethon, Kerith Ravine, Kishon Valley, Jezreel, Desert of Damascus, Abel Meholah, Aphek, Ramoth Gilead, Ekron, Gilgal, Jericho, Mount Carmel, Desert of Edom, Kir Hareseth, Shunem, Baal Shalishah, Abana and Pharpar (rivers of Damascus), Dothan, Zeir, Libnah, Beth Haggan, Gur, Ible-am, Zimri, Beth Eked, Aroer, Arnon Gorge, Bashan, Sur Gate, Silla, Valley of Salt, Sela (became Joktheel), Beth Shemesh, Ephraim Gate, Corner Gate, Lachish, Sea of the Arabah, Gath Hepher, Assyria, Janoah, Kedesh, Upper Gate, Kir, Halah, Gozan, Habor River, towns of the Medes, Babylon, Cutha, Avva, Sepharvaim, Succoth Benoth, Nergal, Ashima, Nibhaz, Tartak, Upper Pool, Washerman’s Field, Arpad, Hena, Ivvah, Haran, Rezeph, Eden, Tel Assar, Nineveh, Ararat, Garden of Uzza, Jotbah, Bozkath, Topheth, Valley of Ben-Hinnom, Rumah, Riblah

Places mentioned:

Mahanaim, Shiloh, Horeb

Key Themes and Events:

1 Kings: as David is growing old, his son Adonijah sets himself up as king, although David has decreed that Solomon would be king / David instructs those loyal to him to march Solomon down to Gihon, declaring that he is king / Adonijah, fearing for his life, recognizes Solomon as king / David issues a charge and some important instructions to Solomon before he dies / Adonijah requests David’s consort Abishag as his wife, so considering it a claim against his throne, Solomon has him executed / Solomon follows his father’s instructions, having his enemies dealt with / King Solomon asks the Lord to give him wisdom / King Solomon arbitrates a dispute between two prostitutes over whose son belongs to whom / Solomon possessed considerable wealth, sustaining his kingdom on a daily basis / Solomon demonstrated a wisdom beyond that of his contemporaries / Solomon renewed David’s alliance with King Hiram of Tyre, securing a supply of timber for building the Temple/ Solomon spends seven years building the Temple / Solomon spends thirteen years finishing his palace / Huram is brought in as a bronze craftsman, to fashion some of the ornate details of the Temple / the Ark of the Covenant is brought into the Temple, and the glory of the Lord fills it / King Solomon declares a great prayer of praise to the Lord, imploring Him that this Temple will be a place where His people can partake of His mercy / the Lord warns Solomon not to disobey Him, lest the Temple be destroyed and the people be scattered because of idolatry / Solomon compensates Hiram with twenty sub-standard towns in Galilee / King Solomon leads Israel into becoming a formidable regional power / the queen of Sheba makes a special visit to King Solomon’s court / King Solomon becomes extremely rich / King Solomon marries many (hundreds of!) wives and falls into idolatry / God says that Israel will be divided, as a result of Solomon’s sin, but not during his lifetime / God raises up various foreign adversaries against King Solomon / the Prophet Ahijah tells Jeroboam that ten of Israel’s tribes will be given to him after King Solomon’s death / Jeroboam escapes to Egypt when King Solomon hears of this word / Solomon dies and is succeeded by Rehoboam / Rehoboam becomes king over Israel, pledging to make its conscripted labor even more difficult than Solomon his father / all of the people except the tribe of Judah follow after the newly-returned Jeroboam / a huge army from the Southern Kingdom is amassed to retake the north, but the Lord prohibits it / a prophet from Judah speaks against Jeroboam’s religion, being mauled to death by a lion on his return journey / Jeroboam’s wife goes to meet Ahijah, to plead for her son’s life / Ahijah says Jeroboam’s son will die / Ahijah says Jeroboam’s dynasty over the Northern Kingdom will not last / the Southern Kingdom falls into idolatry under Rehoboam / Shishak of Egypt attacks Jerusalem and takes away as spoil all of Solomon’s wealth / Abijah becomes ruler of the Southern Kingdom, ruling for three years / Abijah commits the same sins as his father / Asa succeeds Abijah as ruler of the Southern Kingdom, and purges a great deal of idolatry, being loyal to the Lord / King Asa enters into an alliance with Ben-Hadad of Aram, who attacks the Northern Kingdom / Nadab, Jeroboam’s son, succeeds him as leader of the Northern Kingdom / Nadab is killed by Baasha, who in turn kills all of Jeroboam’s family / Baasha becomes ruler of the Northern Kingdom / the Prophet Jehu says that the House of Baasha will not last because it promoted rebellion against the Lord just like the House of Jeroboam / Elah succeeds Baasha as ruler of the Northern Kingdom, only to be overthrown by Zimri / Zimri kills off all of Baasha’s family, and makes himself ruler of the Northern Kingdom / upon hearing of the deposition of Elah by Zimri, the Northern Kingdom army declares its leader Omri as king / Zimri lights the royal palace afire, killing himself, having ruled only seven days / Omri becomes ruler of the Northern Kingdom, establishing his palace at Samaria / Ahab succeeds Omri as king, marrying Jezebel of the Sidonians, and practicing more evil than his predecessors / the Prophet Elijah tells King Ahab there will not be rain / the Prophet Elijah is fed by ravens at the Kerith Ravine / food is provided for the widow at Zarephath / the Prophet Elijah cries out to the Lord, for the widow’s son to be returned to life / the Prophet Elijah tells Obadiah to tell King Ahab that he has arrived, in spite of Jezebel killing off the prophets of the Lord / the Prophet Elijah issues a challenge to the prophets of Baal to meet him at Mount Carmel / Baal does not answer the cries of his servants / a fire from the Lord consumes Elijah’s sacrifice / the people who witness the fire cry out to the Lord / the Prophet Elijah flees to Horeb, with Jezebel intending to kill him / the Lord appears to Elijah, instructing him to return via the desert of Damascus / the Prophet Elijah is to anoint Jehu as king of Israel, and Elisha as his successor / Elijah places his cloak on Elisha, and Elisha becomes Elijah’s attendant / Ben-Hadad of Aram prepares to attack Samaria / Ahab defeats Ben-Hadad during the first round of conflict / Ahab defeats Ben-Hadad during the second round of conflict, yet allows him to return to Damascus alive / a prophet of the Lord condemns King Ahab / Queen Jezebel deceptively takes Naboth’s vineyard away from him, inventing false charges against him / the Prophet Elijah decrees that Ahab’s dynasty will fall because of rebellion against the Lord, and the manipulative actions of Jezebel / the Prophet Micaiah gives a negative word to King Ahab, after inquiring whether or not a Northern-Southern Kingdom alliance should take Ramoth Gilead / King Ahab is told such an enterprise will bring about his death / Ahab goes into the battle against Aram in disguise, but is mortally wounded in combat, bleeding to death / King Jehoshaphat of Judah has a relatively prosperous reign / Ahaziah succeeds Ahab as ruler of the Northern Kingdom, continuing the legacy of evil / 2 Kings: King Ahaziah dies without any heirs, because he consulted Baal-Zebub / fire from Heaven is reigned down upon two squads of fifty soldiers sent to Elijah; the third group pleads mercy from him / Elijah is taken up into Heaven via a whirlwind, leaving behind his anointing upon Elisha / Elisha returns to Samaria, with some evidences of the power God has granted to him along the way / Joram succeeds Ahaziah as ruler of the Northern Kingdom, and was not as evil as King Ahab, removing the sacred stone of Baal / the Moabite king rebels against the Northern Kingdom, refusing to send them their allotment of sheep and wool / Kings Joram and Jehoshaphat join together against Moab, defeating the Moabites on the field of battle after the Prophet Elisha intervenes / a soldier’s widow pleads for Elisha’s help, and he instructs her to pour (multiplying) oil into as many jars she can find, selling the oil to pay her debts / the Shunnamite’s son is restored to life / when there is a famine in Gilgal, no one is harmed by eating (poisonous) gourds / one hundred people are adequately fed by twenty loaves of bread / Naaman, leader of the armies of Aram, goes to the king of Israel to be cured of leprosy / Naaman is incensed when the Prophet Elisha does not meet him personally, but washes in the Jordan according to his instruction / upon being healed, Naaman places his trust in the Lord / Gehazi, Elisha’s servant, is struck down with Naaman’s leprosy when he takes money from him, even though Elisha refused it / an iron axhead floats in the Jordan River when lost / the blinded Arameans are captured by Elisha, and when their sight is restored they stop their raiding / Samaria is besieged by Aram, and the people resort to cannibalism / the Prophet Elisha says that food relief will come / the Aramean army force flees its camp, allowing the people of Samaria to swarm in and take their supplies / the Shunnamite woman’s land is restored to her / Hazael meets the Prophet Elisha, who tells him he will do great harm to Israel / Hazael assassinates Ben-Hadad of Aram, becoming king himself / Jehoram becomes ruler of the Southern Kingdom, falling into sin because of marrying a daughter of Ahab / the Edomites rebel against Judah / Ahaziah succeeds Jehoram as ruler of the Southern Kingdom, whose mother was Athaliah / the Prophet Elisha anoints Jehu as king, who will be responsible for the downfall of Ahab’s dynasty, and for avenging the murderous rampage of Jezebel / Jehu is responsible for the deaths of both Joram of the Northern Kingdom and Ahaziah of the Southern Kingdom / Jezebel’s eunuchs throw her out a window at Jehu’s command, and her corpse is trampled by horses / nothing is found of Jezebel’s corpose when Jehu says she should be buried / Jehu sees to the elimination of Ahab’s family, and the death of those loyal to him / Jehu deceives the prophets and ministers of Baal, in order to kill them / the Lord is pleased with Jehu’s actions, even though he does not purge the Northern Kingdom completely of idolatry / the territory of the Northern Kingdom is steadily eroded / Jehoahaz succeeds Jehu as ruler of the Northern Kingdom / Athaliah tries to eliminate the royal family of Judah, upon hearing that her son is dead / Joash is hidden from Athaliah / Athaliah rules for six years as queen of Judah / Joash is anointed as king by Jehoiada the priest in front of the palace guards / Athaliah is taken outside of the Temple and is executed / Jehoiada sees that Baal worship is purged from Judah, and that the people are incensed over the idolatry / Joash becomes ruler of the Southern Kingdom, even though not all Baal worship was removed / King Joash oversees a repair project of the Jerusalem Temple / King Joash is assassinated / Amaziah succeeds his father as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / Jehoahaz of the Northern Kingdom falls into idolatry / the Northern Kingdom is dominated by Ben-Hadad of Aram / Jehoahaz sought after the Lord, and the Northern Kingdom was relieved from Aram, even though it continued in sin / Jehoash becomes ruler of the Northern Kingdom, continuing the idolatry / Jeroboam (II) succeeds Jehoash as ruler of the Northern Kingdom / Jehoash does not follow the Prophet Elisha’s instructions, and does not completely defeat the Arameans / the Prophet Elisha dies / King Jehoash is able to retake captured towns from the Arameans / King Amaziah follows the example of his father Joash, doing good and obeying the Lord, yet not tearing down the high places / King Amaziah eliminates those who assassinated his father, but not their sons / Jehoash of Israel defeats Amaziah of Judah in battle, taking a great booty from Jerusalem / King Amaziah is assassinated in Lachish / Azariah (Uzziah) succeeds his father Amaziah as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Jeroboam II extends the influence of the Northern Kingdom back to some of what it was / Zechariah succeeds Jeroboam II as ruler of the Northern Kingdom / Azariah ruled as a good king over Judah, yet did not remove the high places / King Azariah is struck with leprosy, with his son Jotham ruling as regent / Jotham succeeds Azariah as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / Zechariah rules over the Northern Kingdom  for six months, but is assassinated by Shallum / Shallum becomes ruler of the Northern Kingdom / Shallum is assassinated by Menahem / Menahem becomes ruler of the Northern Kingdom, engaging in gross evil / King Menahem thwarts the invasion plans of Pul of Assyria, by bribing him / Menahem dies and is succeeded by his son Pekahiah / Pekahiah rules over the Northern Kingdom for two years, being assassinated by Pekah / Pekah becomes ruler of the Northern Kingdom / during the reign of King Pekah, Assyria gains substantial parts of the Northern Kingdom / King Pekah is assassinated by Hoshea / Jotham succeeds Azariah/Uzziah as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Jotham obeys the Lord, but fails to remove the high places / the Southern Kingdom faces some regional opposition / Ahaz becomes ruler of Judah, following after the detestable ways of the nations / the kings of Israel and Aram besiege Judah, forcing King Ahaz to seek an Assyrian alliance / Tiglath-Pileser complies with Ahaz’ request by conquering Aram / Ahaz meets Tiglath-Pileser in Damascus, and while there sees an altar that he orders Uriah the priest to replicate / Hezekiah succeeds Ahaz as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Hoshea of Israel did great evil in the eyes of the Lord, but not like those who had preceded him / Hoshea fails to send Shalmaneser of Assyria his due tribute, and sends envoys to Egypt / Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, and deports many of the Northern Kingdom Israelites / the Northern Kingdom is said to have gone into exile because of the severity of its sin against the Lord, and His great forebearance in giving the people an ample chance to repent / the Southern Kingdom of Judah is said to have been more loyal to the Lord, but still bereft with sin / Samaria is resettled by Assyria with deportees from other places, who bring their own religious practices with them / the beginning of the “Samaritans” is seen, as the deportees learn about the Lord, but refuse to give up many of their heathen practices / Hezekiah becomes ruler of the Southern Kingdom / Hezekiah obeys the Lord, smashing down the high places, and he is given success / Sennacherib of Assyria captures the fortified cities of Judah, forcing Hezekiah to send him a huge tribute to stop his assault / Sennacherib’s field commander threatens the security of Jerusalem / King Hezekiah goes to the Prophet Isaiah, seeking his council in light of what to do regarding the crisis with Assyria / the Prophet Isaiah says that Sennacherib will fall / King Hezekiah cries out to the Lord, pleading that He will respond to the insults levied against Him / the Prophet Isaiah sends a message to King Hezekiah, which details the fall of Sennacherib / Sennacherib’s own sons assassinate him when he returns to Nineveh / Hezekiah is deathly ill, but Isaiah tells him that God will grant him fifteen more years of life / envoys from Babylon are shown state treasures and state secrets by King Hezekiah / the Prophet Isaiah tells King Hezekiah that one day his people will be taken off to Babylon / Manasseh succeeds Hezekiah as ruler of Judah / King Manasseh leads Judah into significant idolatry and rebellion against the Lord / Manasseh dies and Amon succeeds him as ruler of Judah / Amon continues the evil practices of Manasseh / Amon is assassinated by government officials, and is replaced by his young son Josiah / the Book of the Law (Deuteronomy) is discovered in the Temple / God’s judgment against Judah will be delayed because of Josiah’s openness to the message of God’s Torah / King Josiah has the Torah read publicly to the people of Judah, urging them to all renew the covenant that the Lord has made with them / King Josiah begins a radical campaign of defiling all of the high places and idolatrous locations of worship throughout his realm / King Josiah calls the people to remember the Passover once again / King Josiah is killed on the field of battle against Pharaoh Neco / Jehoahaz becomes ruler of Judah, and plunges it back into idolatry / Pharaoh Neco seizes Jehoahaz, placing Jehoiakim (his other name) as leader of Judah / King Jehoiakim becomes a vassal of the Babylonian Nebuchadnezzar / raiders are sent against Judah, as God’s punishment for the sin of Manasseh / Jehoiachim becomes ruler of Judah, being king for three months / Nebuchadnezzar attacks Jerusalem and Solomon’s Temple / Jehoiachin and leading figures from Judah are taken to Babylon / Nebuchadnezzar places Jehoiachin’s uncle, Mattaniah (Zedekiah), as king of Judah / King Zedekiah continues the evil of his predecessors / Nebuchadnezzar lays total siege to Jerusalem and Solomon’s Temple / Zedekiah’s sons are killed before him, his eyes are gouged out, and he is dragged off bound to Babylon / the rest of the remaining people, save the poor, are deported to Babylon / the articles from the Temple are taken away as booty by the Babylonians / the priests of the Temple are executed / Gedaliah is appointed by Nebuchadnezzar over the remains of Judah, but is assassinated by army officers / the officers escape to Egypt / the new Babylonian ruler, Evil-Merodach, frees Jehoiachim from prison and gives him a place of honor within the Babylonian court

Key Scriptures: 1 Kings 2:2-4; 3:6-13; 4:29-30, 34; 8:27-30, 41-42; 9:4-9; 11:1-2, 4-6, 11-13, 29-33; 12:20-22, 28-29; 18:16-18, 25-29; 19:1-2; 21:17-19, 23-26; 2 Kings 1:7-15; 2:9-12; 5:8-16; 6:15-17; 9:6-10, 17-26, 32-37; 10:30-31; 17:7-20, 23, 24-28, 34-41; 19:14-19; 20:14-19; 21:2-6; 22:11-13, 15-20; 23:21-33 / The United Kingdom (1 Kings 1:1-11:43); The Divided Kingdom (12:1-22:53); The Divided Kingdom (2 Kings 1:1-17:41); The Surviving Kingdom (18:1-25:30)

Theological Summary: In the division of the Hebrew Bible, the Books of Kings (Heb. melakim) are simply a single book. The division into two texts came via the production of the Septuagint in the Second Century B.C.E., with what we know today as 1&2 Kings originally being designated as 3&4 Kings. When the designation of the first two books as 1&2 Samuel came, the latter two books became listed as 1&2 Kings.[1] This division was followed by Jerome’s Latin Vulgate and was slowly adapted over time by Jewish Bibles as a matter of convenience.[2]

The Jewish theological tradition places 1&2 Kings among the Former Prophets, something to seriously be considered by any reader of the text because of the significant number of prophets listed in its account.[3] Christian tradition places 1&2 Kings among the Historical Books. While 1&2 Kings surely contain Biblical history, these books take on a distinctly prophetic character[4] in light of their content and warnings.

1&2 Kings take us from the beginning of the reign of King Solomon to the Southern Kingdom’s exile to Babylon, covering a period of about 400 years. Much attention is given to the rise of Solomon, and the chaos that appears to ensue following his death. It details the accounts of the Northern Kingdom’s rebellion against God, and its eventual exile by Assyria. Kings also records the up-and-down rebellion and loyalty to God by the Southern Kingdom, and its eventual exile to Babylon.

The division of Kings into 1 Kings and 2 Kings is at an arbitrary place in the text, appearing after the deaths of King Ahab of the Northern Kingdom (1 Kings 22:37) and Jehoshaphat of the Southern Kingdom (1 Kings 22:50). The purpose of the text was to provide Jews in Babylonian exile a recorded history of Israel from the reign of King David to the present time, including the period of the Divided Kingdom. We see in its record that the Northern Kingdom is portrayed as having exclusively wicked kings, and the Southern Kingdom likewise has mostly wicked kings, with a handful of exceptions.

1&2 Kings does present some chronological issues regarding the dating of various monarchs from the Northern and Southern Kingdoms, and what can appear to be overlapping reigns.[5] Scholars have been trying to synchronize these reigns for many years based on extant data from the Ancient Near East, and have made various proposals.[6]

Jewish tradition accredits authorship of Kings to the Prophet Jeremiah (b.Bava Batra 15a),[7] arguing that Jeremiah was a contemporary of Josiah.[8] Many conservatives today espouse some kind of Jeremianic authorship or involvement in the text of 1&2 Kings.[9] Against this is the fact that Jeremiah was taken to Egypt (Jeremiah 43:6-7), and the author of 1&2 Kings demonstrates an innate knowledge of Babylon.[10] We can rightly assert that the author of Kings was familiar with the themes of Deuteronomy. He was undoubtedly a Judahite from the Southern Kingdom, but it is debated whether or not the text was composed immediately before or during the exile to Babylon.

1&2 Kings is a text that was compiled from various distinct sources.[11] These include “the book of the acts of Solomon” (1 Kings 11:41), “the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel” (1 Kings 14:19), “the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah” (1 Kings 14:29). These would have all been court annals from the royal archives of the Southern Kingdom, possibly mentioned by the author of Chronicles (1 Chronicles 29:29; 2 Chronicles 9:29; 12:15; 20:34; 24:27; 26:22; 32:32). These are all sources that have been lost to history, but whose archival traditions are present in 1&2 Kings.

Most conservative scholars place the composition of 1&2 Kings sometime in the Sixth Century B.C.E., prior to the end of the Babylonian exile of the Southern Kingdom, during the reign of Evil-Merodach (2 Kings 25:27-30). The author of 1&2 Kings may be rightly assumed to be an unidentified prophet,[12] given the character of his writing, but who ultimately is anonymous.[13] A pre-exilic composition of most of Kings is supported by various references “to this day,” including the polls used to carry the Ark of the Covenant (1 Kings 8:8), conscripted labor (1 Kings 9:20-21), Israel in rebellion against the House of David (1 Kings 12:19), and Edom in rebellion against Judah (2 Kings 8:22). These factors may point to some kind of authorship prior to King Josiah, and many conclude that much of 1&2 Kings had already been compiled prior to the exile, later to be redacted with additional information.

Liberal scholars place 1&2 Kings among the last of the so-called “Deuteronomistic histories” of Joshua, Judges, and 1&2 Samuel, indicating that its author places a significant importance of the themes of Deuteronomy 28.[14] This follows the propositions of German higher critic Martin Noth,[15] who suggested that Joshua-Kings (and possibly even Deuteronomy-Kings) were originally a single work written to chastise the Southern Kingdom in Babylonian exile.

Conservatives, in response, do recognize the importance of Deuteronomy on 1&2 Kings, and specifically parts of it on the Josianic reforms,[16] but do not consider it a work of a so-called Deuteronomist in the late periods of the Southern Kingdom.[17] Instead, conservatives largely advocate that the themes of Deuteronomy were quite common in ancient Hebrew theology. “The term ‘Deuteronomic’ can only be applied unexceptionably to Kings in the sense that the author recognized, with Moses (Deut. 28:1ff), that obedience to God brought blessing, while disobedience resulted in calamity” (Harrison).[18]

It was quite common for earlier liberals to import themes of the JEDP documentary hypothesis (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis) of the Torah into 1&2 Kings.[19] Some used the descriptions seen of the Northern Kingdom and Southern Kingdom to apply theological values to the so-called E and J sources, with E representing the view of Israel’s God from the Northern Kingdom and J representing the view of the Southern Kingdom.[20] This, as should be expected, radically affected their views of the Pentateuch. Most liberals today, however, have abandoned this method and have adopted some variation on Noth’s view of Kings’ relative unity.

Surprisingly, liberal scholars will affix some kind of valid historicity to the claims of 1&2 Kings, even though there are many who believe that some of its claims are overstated.[21] Liberals and conservatives are closer on the dating of 1&2 Kings than any other Tanach texts up to this point in the Hebrew canon.[22] It is interesting, though, that there are some conservatives who advocate that Joshua-Kings should be thought of “as a single literary work” (Dillard and Longman).[23] At the very least, this can help the lay reader to see a much larger picture of the rise and fall of Israel’s kingdom.

The text of 1&2 Kings has been subject to some editing and alteration over the centuries. The Greek Septuagint text of 1&2 Kings is shorter compared to the Hebrew Masoretic Text, with the Dead Sea Scrolls indicating that the LXX is probably closer to the original Hebrew.[24] Each textual variance must be considered on a case-by-case basis.

When reading Kings, it should be self-apparent that its author writes with a definite geopolitical bias in regard to the monarchs he describes,[25] largely reflecting the views of the Southern Kingdom. This is largely motivated by a covenantal view of God’s favor toward those who obey Him, with the Southern Kingdom being favored by God much more than the Northern Kingdom. However, the author of 1&2 Kings does demonstrate how both Israel and Judah are judged by God for their sin. He details the major problem of asceticism, where practices to honor the Lord are mixed with foreign religious customs from the Canaanites. The author of 1&2 Kings also recognizes that the monarchs of Israel and Judah play an important role in God blessing or judging the people.

1&2 Kings teach us much about what can happen to a nation or group of people when sin is allowed to enter in and flourish. A continual theme of the text is that obedience to God is necessary in order to not be punished by Him. Some theologians, particularly Noth, saw a largely pessimistic message in 1&2 Kings of its author chastising his fellow Israelites for the exile. Others, particularly Noth’s colleague Gerhard Von Rad, saw distinct rays of hope in 1&2 Kings with God’s promises to Ancient Israel and King David as a message of future restoration.[26] The debate that continues today in Kings’ scholarship is whether 1&2 Kings is a message about what Israel did wrong, or a declaration of Israel’s guilt toward God.[27] “[T]he author writes to demonstrate conclusively to his readers both the necessity of the believer’s keeping his covenantal obligations before God and the history of those most responsible for leading God’s people in their stewardship of the divine economy” (EXP).[28]

1&2 Kings asks many questions regarding Ancient Israel as a regional power, particularly among the various other powers of the Ancient Near East.[29] Its characters and stories play well into the teachings of Yeshua and the Apostles, and as such cannot be ignored.[30]

There is probably more discussion of 1&2 Kings in a few distinct sectors of today’s (very) broad Messianic community than 1&2 Samuel, largely due to its amount of historical passages recording the division of Israel into the Northern and Southern Kingdoms. (How truly historical and fact-conscious some of these discussions are is a matter to dispute.) Questions of the influence of Deuteronomy on the text, however, are often not considered, although they should be a natural extension of one’s “Torah observance.” It is necessary for any interpreter of 1&2 Kings to understand it in light of 1&2 Chronicles, which was composed after the exile, and is written asking somewhat different questions than 1&2 Kings.

Anyone examining 1&2 Kings needs to pay close attention to the humanity of each of Israel’s leaders, notably the gross sin and idolatry of King Solomon. There are many lessons to be learned from 1&2 Kings that speak profoundly to our modern world.

Bibliography

Ackroyd, P.R. “Kings, I and II,” in IDBSup, pp 516-519.

Ball, E. “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:30-38.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Kings,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 149-167.

Harrison, R.K. “The Books of Kings,” in Old Testament Introduction, pp 719-737.

Holloway, Steven W. “Kings, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 4:69-83.

LaSor, William Sanford. “1&2 Kings,” in NBCR, pp 320-368.

Mariottini, Claude F. “1 Kings,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 479-523.

_________________. “2 Kings,” in Ibid., pp 525-569.

Patterson, Richard D., and Hermann J. Austel. “1, 2 Kings,” in EXP, 4:3-300.

Payne, J. Barton. “Kings, 1 and 2, Books of,” in NIDB, pp 569-571.

Szikszai, S. “Kings, I and II,” in IDB, 3:26-35.

Zevit, Ziony. “1 Kings,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 668-725.

__________. “2 Kings,” in Ibid., pp 726-779.

ENDNOTES FOR Books of Kings

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 719.

[2] E. Ball, “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:30; Ziony Zevit, “1 Kings,” in Jewish Study Bible, 668.

[3] Dillard and Longman, 149.

[4] J. Barton Payne, “Kings, 1 and 2, Books of,” in NIDB, 570.

[5] S. Szikszai, “Kings, I and II,” in IDB, 3:30; P.R. Ackroyd, “Kings, I and II,” in IDBSup, 518; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 733-735; Ball, “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:36; Richard D. Patterson and Hermann J. Austel, “1, 2 Kings,” in EXP, 4:10-12.

[6] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 735-737; William Sanford LaSor, “1&2 Kings,” in NBCR, pp 321-323; Patterson and Austel, in EXP, 4:13-17; Steven W. Holloway, “Kings, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 4:75-76; Dillard and Longman, pp 156-157.

[7] “Jeremiah wrote the book that is called by his name, the book of Kings, and Lamentations” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[8] LaSor, in NBCR, 320.

[9] Patterson and Austel, in EXP, 4:5-6.

[10] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 720; Payne, “Kings, 1 and 2, Books of,” in NIDB, 570; Dillard and Longman, pp 149-150.

[11] Szikszai, “Kings, I and II,” in IDB, 3:31-34; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 725-729; LaSor, in NBCR, 320; Ball, “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:30-31; Holloway, “Kings, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 4:71; Zevit, in Jewish Study Bible, 670.

[12] LaSor, in NBCR, 320.

[13] Payne, “Kings, 1 and 2, Books of,” in NIDB, 570.

[14] Szikszai, “Kings, I and II,” in IDB, 3:30-31; Zevit, in Jewish Study Bible, 669.

[15] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 731-732; Holloway, “Kings, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 4:71-72; Dillard and Longman, pp 154-155.

[16] Payne, “Kings, 1 and 2, Books of,” in NIDB, 570; Ball, “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:33-34.

[17] LaSor, in NCBR, 320.

[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 732; cf. Patterson and Austel, in EXP, 4:4-5.

[19] Ball, “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:30-31; Holloway, “Kings, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 4:71; Dillard and Longman, pp 152-153.

[20] Szikszai, “Kings, I and II,” in IDB, 3:34; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 730-731.

[21] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 729.

[22] Patterson and Austel, in EXP, 4:3.

[23] Dillard and Longman, 152.

[24] Szikszai, “Kings, I and II,” in IDB, 3:35; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 737; LaSor, in NBCR, 322; Ball, “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:35; Patterson and Austel, in EXP, 4:10; Holloway, “Kings, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 4:73-74; Dillard and Longman, 156.

[25] LaSor, in NBCR, 321; Holloway, “Kings, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 4:79.

[26] Ball, “Kings, Books of,” in ISBE, 3:37.

[27] Dillard and Longman, 161.

[28] Patterson and Austel, in EXP, 4:7.

[29] Ibid., 4:3.

[30] Dillard and Longman, pp 165-167.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON KINGS:

1. Summarize the life of King Solomon and his great accomplishments. What factors do you believe contributed to both his rise and fall?

2. Which parts of Solomon’s reign impress you the most? Which parts do not impress you?

3. Why and how did the Kingdom of Israel split after the death of King Solomon? What did Jeroboam do to solidify the split between the Northern and Southern Kingdoms?

4. Looking at the parallel histories of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms, what are some similarities and differences that you notice?

5. What do you consider to be the most important features of the ministry of the Prophet Elijah?

6. Who were King Ahab and Queen Jezebel, and why are they significant in the Biblical narrative?

7. What do you consider to be the most important features of the ministry of the Prophet Elisha?

8. How was idolatry able to enter into both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms?

9. What do you believe are some of the most positive actions of the kings of Israel and Judah? What do you believe are some of the most negative actions?

10. How and why was the Northern Kingdom exiled?

11. How was Samaria resettled after the destruction of Israel/Ephraim?

12. How significant do you believe were the reforms initiated by King Josiah? (additional question: Do you think today’s Messianic movement might have some “Josianic” qualities?)

13. How and why was the Southern Kingdom exiled?

14. How thorough was the destruction of Jerusalem and Solomon’s Temple at the hands of the Babylonians?

15. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of 1&2 Kings?

REFLECTION ON KINGS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Books of Kings:

BOOK OF ISAIAH

Approximate date: 700s B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: the Southern Kingdom of Judah preparing to see the Northern Kingdom of Israel/Ephraim fall to Assyria

Prophet/author(s): Isaiah son of Amoz (Right); Isaiah son of Amoz and later editors (some conservative-moderate); Isaiah son of Amoz, “Deutero-Isaiah” (some conservative-moderate, some Left); Isaiah son of Amoz, “Deutero-Isaiah,” “Tritio-Isaiah” (some conservative-moderate, some Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel or Jerusalem (Right, some conservative-moderate); Land of Israel, Jerusalem, and/or Babylon (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: people of the Southern Kingdom of Judah (Right, some conservative-moderate); Southern Kingdom Israelites in Babylonian exile (some conservative-moderate, Left)

People:

Isaiah (son of Amoz), Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz (son of Jotham), Hezekiah, Rezin, Pekah (son of Remaliah), Shear-Jashub, son of Tabeel, Uriah (the priest), Zechariah (son of Jeberekiah), Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, Sargon, Dedanites, Shebna, Eliakim (son of Hilkiah), Leviathan (spiritual principality), Joah (son of Asaph), Tirhakah, Adrammelech, Sharezer, Esarhaddon, Merodach-Baladan, Baladan, Cyrus, Sabeans, Bel (deity), Nebo (deity), Molech (deity), Lybians, Lydians

People mentioned:

Jacob, David, Philistines, Jesse, Abraham, Sarah, Noah, Moses

Places:

Judah, Jerusalem, Zion, Aram, Upper Pool, Washerman’s Field, Damascus, Samaria, Assyria, Egypt, Shiloh, Galilee of the Gentiles/Nations, Calno, Carchemish, Hamath, Arpad, rock of Oreb, Aiath, Migron, Micmash, Geba, Ramah, Gibeah of Saul, Gallim, Laishah, Anathoth, Madmenah, Gebim, Nob, Cush, Elam, Babylonia, Euphrates River, Ar, Kir, Dibon, Medeba, Heshbon, Elealeh, Jahaz, Zoar, Eglath, Shelishiyah, Horonaim, Nimrim, Ravine of the Poplars, Eglaim, Beer Elim, Dimon, Arnon, Kir Hareseth, Sibmah, Jazer, Aroer, Valley of Rephaim, Nile, Zoan, Ashdod, Desert by the Sea, Media, Dumah, Seir, Arabia, Tema, Kedar, Palace of the Forest, Lower Pool, Old Pool, Tarshish, Tyre, Cyprus, Sidon, Shihor, Wadi of Egypt, Mount Perazim, Valley of Gibeon, Ariel, Hanes, Negev, Topheth, Sharon, Araban, Bashan, Carmel, Edom, Bozrah, Lachish, Sepharvaim, Gozan, Haran, Rezeph, Eden, Tel Assar, Hena, Ivvah, Nineveh, land of Ararat, Sela, Seba, region of Aswan, Midian, Ephah, Nebaioth, Valley of Achor, Tubal, Greece

Places mentioned:

Sodom, Gomorrah, Lebanon, Eden

Key Themes:

Judah is rebuked as though it is rebellious Sodom and Gomorrah, but redemption is promised if it seeks justice and what is right / Jerusalem will have to be judged by God because of its sin, but it will be restored as evil is purged / the nations will come streaming to Zion in the Last Days to be taught God’s Torah / the Day of the LORD will be a time when idols fail humankind and people will try to hide themselves from Him to no avail / the Lord promises to significantly judge Judah and Jerusalem, issuing great disgrace upon them / Jerusalem will be cleansed from its sins / the Lord compares His people to a vineyard that produces bad grapes / a series of woes is issued against the evil deeds of the people, who although judged, will still be restored from their dispersion / the Prophet Isaiah is given a vision of God’s throne and the Heavenly host / the Prophet Isaiah tells King Ahaz that the Northern Kingdom of Ephraim will be shattered as a people in due time / facing calamity as a nation, the answer for all Israel[1] will be found in Immanuel, the Messiah to come / Assyria’s plot against Judah will be foiled, as Assyria will be used by God to judge Ephraim / Immanuel’s land will be hit hard by Assyria, as Assyria’s advance will sweep into Judah / the Coming One will be a cause of stumbling for both Houses of Israel / looking to mediums and spiritists for help, in place of God, will only bring further despair / Galilee of the Gentiles/Nations will be honored by the birth of a unique Son / the Lord will severely punish Israel for its evil, a serious cause of which is its bad leaders and false prophets / after punishing His people via Assyria, the Lord will punish Assyria for its own evil / despite the numbers of Israel, only a remnant of them will be saved in the end / a righteous Branch will come forth from the line of Jesse, heralding great righteousness and peace / the nations will rally to this Branch / the Lord will bring back His people (Judah and Israel) to the Promised Land / as they are restored, God’s people will recognize Him as their salvation / the Lord will enact a great punishment upon the Babylonians / as Babylon is destroyed, the Lord will restore His people to the Promised Land / the people of God issue a taunt against Babylon, who is presumably led by a “morning star” / Isaiah says that the Lord will judge Assyria / Isaiah says that the Lord will judge the Philistines / Isaiah says that the Lord will judge Moab / Isaiah says that the Lord will judge Damascus / Isaiah says that the Lord will judge Cush / Isaiah says that the Lord will judge Egypt / many in Egypt will come to know and worship the God of Israel / the Lord has Isaiah strip naked as a testimony for Egypt and Cush and how their exiles will be taken away by the king of Assyria / Isaiah issues a word about the fall of Babylon / Isaiah issues words against Edom and Arabia / Isaiah issues a word about the fall of Jerusalem / Isaiah issues a word against Tyre / Isaiah prophesies how the Lord is going to judge the whole Earth / Isaiah prophesies of a praise to the Lord that will be sung in Judah when He judges the world / Isaiah speaks of God’s great deliverance of Israel that will come / Isaiah issues a word against Ephraim, who specifically suffers from a drunkenness / the covenant of death that Israel has made will be annulled by God / Isaiah speaks of how David’s city (“Ariel”) will be besieged / God’s people will seek Him, acknowledging His holiness / Isaiah says that Judah joining into an alliance with Egypt is considered sin by God / God will be gracious when those of Zion look to His way for help / the people will rejoice when God enacts His vindication / Isaiah appeals that the people not look to Egypt for their help, but rather to the Lord / Isaiah describes the (ideal) kingdom of righteousness / Isaiah issues words to the women of Jerusalem / help will be found in the Lord, when His people face distress (by Assyria) / God’s judgment has cosmic ramifications / God’s judgment upon Edom is compared to His judgment on Sodom and Gomorrah / those who are redeemed have great joy in the Lord / Sennacherib of Assyria attacks Judah / the Assyrian field commander insults Israel’s king, but most significantly Israel’s God / Sennacherib sends an intimidating letter to King Hezekiah, indicating how other gods failed to deliver their people from Assyria’s power / King Hezekiah prays to the Lord that Judah would be delivered from Assyria / Isaiah prophesies of Sennacherib’s fall / God’s angel is responsible for the death of a significant part of the Assyrian army / returning to Nineveh, Sennacherib is assassinated by two of his sons / King Hezekiah is saved from dying by an illness / envoys from Babylon visit King Hezekiah, who shows them the state treasures of Judah / Isaiah tells Hezekiah that there will be an exile of his descendants to Babylon / the Prophet Isaiah calls for God’s people to be given great comfort / the Prophet Isaiah describes the Lord as Israel’s Helper / the Servant of the Lord will be His light to the nations / the Prophet Isaiah calls for the singing of great praise to the Lord / Israel, as God’s designated servant, is blind to His Torah and His chastisement of them / Isaiah declares that only the Lord is Israel’s Savior / God is merciful to Israel in spite of their unfaithfulness to Him / Israel is God’s chosen, who will have His Spirit poured out upon them / idols made of human hands are nothing compared to the Almighty God / Isaiah says that the Lord will restore Jerusalem through a Cyrus, designated as being His “shepherd” / the Lord mocks the gods of Babylon, showing how they are futile to save anyone / the Lord speaks of the fall of Babylon, causes of which are its unrighteousness and mystical religion / the Lord speaks of the stubbornness of Israel / the Lord speaks of how those captured in Babylon will be able to flee / the Lord’s Servant will not only be responsible for restoring the tribes of Israel, but will be a light of God’s salvation to the nations / God’s restoration of Israel will be a worldwide affair / the Servant of God is One who obeys Him / the salvation that God will enact for Zion will be everlasting / the wrath intended by God for Israel will be poured out on Israel’s enemies in the long run / the Servant, the Messiah, sent by the Lord will be scourged and rejected in spite of His faithful service / the Prophet Isaiah describes the future glory of Zion / the Lord invites those who are “thirsty” to come to Him / the salvation and regathering of Israel is to include foreigners / God issues a series of poignant accusations against the wicked / the Lord promises that He will restore comfort to those who are contrite / the Lord compares false fasting with true fasting / because no one else was there to act, the Lord Himself had to act to deal with the unrighteousness of His people / the restoration and glory of Zion will involve both Israel and the nations, and be a significantly impactful event / Isaiah details what the year of the Lord’s favor is to be / Zion’s new “name” will be its belovedness before the Lord / the day of God’s vengeance is described as a trodden winepress / Isaiah praises God as Israel’s Savior, imploring Him for His past deeds on their behalf, as well as His compassion in spite of Israel’s rebellion against Him / judgment will be issued by God upon those who eat pigs’ flesh and offer abominable sacrifices, yet such sins will be forgotten if one turns to Him / a New Heavens and a New Earth will be brought forward by God / judgment will be issued because of Israel’s abominations, but hope of restoration and return is given, as God punishes the world for its sin / as the judgment of the Lord is enacted, many from the nations will be brought in to serve Him as Levites / those who rebelled against the Lord will be killed by Him in judgment, being a reminder to all of His vengeance

Key Scriptures: Isaiah 1:11-20; 2:2-4; 6:1-8; 7:13-14; 8:13-16; 9:1, 6-7; 10:1-4, 20-23; 11:1-10, 12-16; 14:1-2, 12-15; 24:5-6, 19-21; 29:13-14, 22-24; 30:19-22; 32:3-8; 33:2-6; 40:1-10, 13; 42:5-7, 19-25; 43:10-12; 44:6-8; 45:15-17, 21-23[2]; 46:9-11; 47:13-18; 49:5-7, 22-23; 51:4-6; 52:7-10, 52:13-53:12; 55:6-9; 56:1-3, 8; 59:15-20; 60:1-4; 61:1-3; 62:1-5; 63:7-10; 66:7-8, 18-21 / Words of Judgment (1:1-39:8); Words of Comfort (40:1-66:24)

Theological Summary: One of the most important and frequently discussed books of the Bible is undoubtedly the Book of Isaiah. In the Jewish theological tradition Isaiah (Heb. Yeshayahu) is the first of the Latter Prophets (considering that Joshua-Kings compose the Former Prophets). Many songs, important theological concepts, wisdom ideas, and even some Western social concepts are derived from Isaiah—sometimes without people even realizing it.[3] Isaiah is a text that speaks in very broad terms to individuals, communities, and entire nations about their relationship with God. Isaiah is not something that is read easily like one of the histories of the Tanach, and requires a person to read it very observantly. It has been a widely considered and debated text throughout Jewish and Christian history, and this will probably continue as the Messianic movement grows.[4]

The Prophet depicted in this book is identified by name as Isaiah the son of Amoz (1:1), something that is upheld by the Apostolic Scriptures (Matthew 12:17-21; John 12:28-41; Romans 10:16, 20-21). This Isaiah was a contemporary of Amos, Hosea, and Micah, beginning his service in 740 B.C.E., and some Jewish tradition considers him to be a relative of the royal court (b.Megillah 10b)[5] and even sawn in two (cf. Hebrews 11:37).

Isaiah prophesied during the period of the Northern Kingdom of Israel’s decline and Assyria’s expansion. Assyria conquered the Northern Kingdom in 722-721 B.C.E., and the supplementary history behind Isaiah is largely found in 2 Kings 15-21 and 2 Chronicles 26-33. King Uzziah dies in 740 B.C.E. (6:1), ending a fifty-year period of stability and co-existence with the Northern Kingdom.[6] Isaiah enters the scene and warns the Southern Kingdom of Judah that its sin will bring judgment by Babylon. Against this backdrop, much of Isaiah’s prophecy deals with the judgment and restoration of the Southern Kingdom, with the Northern Kingdom having already been judged,[7] even though ultimately all of Israel will be restored—and it will have consequences for not just Israel but also the nations.

Many conservative scholars accept the premise that all of the prophecies in Isaiah are attributed to a single Isaiah. This is largely because of the commonality throughout the book, with themes seen such as punishment, Jerusalem as God’s holy mountain, and a highway being made by Him to Jerusalem. One of the strongest arguments made in favor of Isaianic unity is its usage of the term “Holy One of Israel” twelve times, and other various common words and phrases.[8]

Until modern times, the unity of the Book of Isaiah was something that was assumed by most scholars.[9] Divisions that occur in Isaiah cause some to think that there are several different “Isaiahs” responsible for various parts of the text—perhaps as many as three. It is sometimes thought that chs. 1-35 begin with a series of prophecies about the Southern Kingdom in relation to Assyria, chs. 36-39 form an historical interlude, then introducing chs. 40-66.[10] Chs. 36-66 are often referred to as Second Isaiah or Deutero-Isaiah in various theological works.

Propositions for Deutero-Isaiah actually began in the Middle Ages with the Jewish scholar Abraham Ibn-Ezra suggesting that a second prophet spoke to those in Babylonian Exile.[11] It was believed that the later prophecies seen in Isaiah were given during the Babylonian Exile with the expectation that Cyrus of Persia would be used to deliver Israel. These prophecies, for lack of a better description, were given by a Pseudo or Second Isaiah. Some conservative theologians believe in Deutero-Isaiah,[12] but most believe that these later prophecies are predictive and were given by Isaiah son of Amoz. “Conservative opinion is anchored in its theological conviction…about the reality of prophetic revelation—that the Spirit of God did give to ancient writers insight into the future” (Dillard and Longman).[13]

Liberal scholars are often the ones found to be advocating the existence of a Deutero-Isaiah for the compilation of chs. 40-55 during the Babylonian Exile, and even a Tritio-Isaiah for chs. 56-66.[14] These trends largely began among Nineteenth Century German scholars who adapted Ibn-Ezra’s view and were influenced by some of the views espoused by Pentateuchal source criticism.[15] Third Isaiah was added as another prophet who spoke apocalyptic visions of God’s judgment on the world. A good summation of these views is found in the Anchor Bible Dictionary entry for the Book of Isaiah, which is actually divided into three sections for: First Isaiah, Second Isaiah, and Third Isaiah.[16]

Liberals often tend to see the composition of Isaiah as having taken place over a very long, drawn out period of compilation and redaction. Some do not even believe that Isaiah was finished until the Third Century B.C.E.[17] Conservatives often respond to these views by pointing out that Isaiah’s prophecies were made under the assumption that the Southern Kingdom was doomed, and these words were predictive in nature.[18] Even some liberals urge caution, warning that “It is not clear to us when, or why, the prophecies of Deutero-Isaiah were combined with those of Isaiah son of Amoz” (Jewish Study Bible).[19] Canonical criticism of the Bible recognizes that Isaiah is to be taken as a single work.[20]

There is certainly discussion as to whether or not Isaiah simply prophesied these words, or whether he wrote them down as a prophetic work.[21] It is likely that Isaiah wrote down many of these prophecies, or that those associated with him did this. If one holds to some kind of unity for the Book of Isaiah, it is not improbable that Isaiah’s prophecies are interspersed with historical data because they were redacted by the School of the Prophets or Isaiah’s immediate disciples.[22] Talmudic tradition indicates that Isaiah was actually written by the men of Hezekiah (b.Bava Batra 15a),[23] which probably was “in the sense of ‘edited’ or ‘compiled’” (Harrison).[24] Some theologians today propose that the composition of Isaiah was intended to be read in two paralleling volumes with concurrent themes.[25]

The textual integrity of the Book of Isaiah actually remains very strong. A single scroll of Isaiah was discovered at Qumran. Although Isaiah is currently placed as the first of the Prophets, this may not have always been the case in antiquity.[26] The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Isaiah is relatively intact, with only minor variants. Among ancient witnesses, those seen among the Dead Sea Scrolls are very important. Some minor variants likewise exist between the MT and Greek Septuagint, and the LXX can be useful in examining various difficulties in the Hebrew as they present themselves.[27]

The events of Isaiah chs. 1-39 are contemporary to the Eighth-Seventh Centuries B.C.E. Significant sections of Isaiah deal with ancient prophecies intended to call Israel to repentance and restoration before God. Concurring with these major themes are sections in Isaiah of various additional prophetic oracles, poetry, hymns of praise to God, and apocalyptic revelations. Isaiah also makes distinct usage of personification, where worldly elements such as mountains and trees are often used to represent people, or represent how the world is under the control of God. Isaiah also makes mention of previous events in Israel’s history such as the Exodus or other judgments He has enacted.

Common ideas seen throughout Isaiah include the judgment of God upon His rebellious people (1:2), followed by a later time of His redeeming them (41:14, 16). God will also judge the nations who try to thwart the restoration of His people (2:11, 17, 20, et. al.). Isaiah is used to call the people back to holiness, to repent from their sins, urging them to remain faithful to the Lord, and to eagerly await His Messiah. The future Messianic Age will bring the ultimate redemption as Israel is used as the conduit by which the entire world can be saved.

In the Jewish theological tradition, Isaiah is one of the most favorite of the prophetic books, being cited in more Rabbinical works than any other of the Prophets, and being used for more Haftarah selections than any of the others.[28] It is notable that there does exist some difference between the Jewish interpretations of various Messianic passages when compared to the traditional Christian interpretations. This is particularly true in identifying the Servant of Isaiah 53.[29] Targumic material of Isaiah often shows how various passages were interpreted messianically, and these are considered to be quite valuable among Christian exegetes today.[30]

The Book of Isaiah plays a major role in the Messianic expectations of the Apostolic Scriptures, particularly in the theology of Yeshua and His immediate followers. Isaiah is quoted more times in the New Testament than any other Tanach book besides Psalms. Isaiah relates not only to the entry of Yeshua into the world as God’s Messiah, but also helps to establish the mission for God’s people going out into the world. “The day of the LORD” is a time associated with the Second Coming of Yeshua to judge the Earth and establish His Kingdom.

In certain early Christian traditions, Isaiah was sometimes considered to actually be the “Fifth Gospel.” While certain parts of Isaiah remain very familiar to today’s Christian, most of the book remains decidedly elusive, and many Christian theologians note that this is something that needs to change.[31] Redemption is undoubtedly the overarching theme of Isaiah.

Today’s emerging Messianic movement undoubtedly has a great appreciation for Isaiah. There have been some limited Messianic studies of Isaiah conducted, but it is probable that very few of them are engaged with contemporary composition issues and debates over authorship and date. It can be easily said that too many of today’s Messianics who examine Isaiah probably give too much attention to ancient, post-Yeshua Jewish views of Isaiah that often subtract from Isaiah’s legitimate Messianic significance. Truly, much improvement can be made for our engagement with the Book of Isaiah.

Bibliography

Ackerman, Susan. “Isaiah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 955-1049.

Allis, Oswald T. “Isaiah,” in NIDB, pp 471-474.

Barker, Margaret. “Isaiah,” in ECB, pp 489-542.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Isaiah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 267-283.

Everson, A. Joseph. “Isaiah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 648-652.

Grogan, G.W. “Isaiah,” in EXP, 6:3-354.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Isaiah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 764-800.

Kidner, Derek. “Isaiah,” in NBCR, pp 588-625.

North, C.R. “Isaiah,” in IDB, 2:731-744.

Robinson, G.L., and R.K. Harrison. “Isaiah,” in ISBE, 2:885-904.

Seitz, Christopher R. “Isaiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:472-507.

Sommer, Benjamin D. “Isaiah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 780-916.

Ward, J.M. “Isaiah,” in IDBSup, pp 456-461.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Isaiah

[1] Isaiah 7:14 says that the sign will be l’khem, or “to you” in the plural.

[2] Cf. Philippians 2:5-11.

[3] G.W. Grogan, “Isaiah,” in EXP, 3:4.

[4] Dillard and Longman, 268.

[5] Grogan, in EXP, 3:4.

[6] G.L. Robinson and R.K. Harrison, “Isaiah,” in ISBE, 2:886-887.

[7] Oswald T. Allis, “Isaiah,” in NIDB, 472.

[8] Robinson and Harrison, “Isaiah,” in ISBE, 2:896-897; Dillard and Longman, pp 271-273.

[9] Robinson and Harrison, “Isaiah,” in ISBE, 2:893; Grogan, in EXP, 3:6-8; Margaret Barker, “Isaiah,” in James D.G. Dunn and John W. Rogerson, eds., Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 489.

[10] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 775.

[11] Robinson and Harrison, “Isaiah,” in ISBE, 2:893; A. Joseph Everson, “Isaiah, Book of,” in EDB, 648; Dillard and Longman, 268; Benjamin D. Sommer, “Isaiah,” in Jewish Study Bible, 781.

[12] Dillard and Longman, 275.

[13] Ibid., 274.

[14] C.R. North, “Isaiah,” in IDB, 2:735-742; Dillard and Longman, pp 269-271.

[15] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 765-771; Christopher R. Seitz, “Isaiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:473.

[16] Seitz, “Isaiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:472-502.

[17] Barker, in ECB, 489.

[18] Grogan, in EXP, 3:9-11.

[19] Sommer, in Jewish Study Bible, 784.

[20] Dillard and Longman, 273.

[21] Derek Kidner, “Isaiah,” in NBCR, pp 588-589.

[22] Kidner, in NBCR, 589; cf. J.M. Ward, “Isaiah,” in IDBSup, 457.

[23] “Hezekiah and his colleagues wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Qohelet” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[24] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 765.

[25] Dillard and Longman, 281.

[26] North, “Isaiah,” in IDB, 2:734.

[27] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 798.

[28] Sommer, in Jewish Study Bible, 780.

[29] Robinson and Harrison, “Isaiah,” in ISBE, 2:893-894.

[30] Barker, in ECB, 490.

[31] Grogan, in EXP, 3:3.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON ISAIAH:

1. Having just surveyed Isaiah, which feature of its prophecies, oracles, rebukes, and/or promises strikes you as being the most significant? What will require further study and investigation on your part?

2. What are the key parts of Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne in ch. 6?

3. What were all of the factors playing a role in Isaiah’s prophecy of Immanuel in ch. 7? Do you believe that they speak of a child to be born in King Ahaz’ day, or of the future as applied in passages such as Matthew 1:23? (Consult ch. 9 if you need to.)

4. What will the Branch of ch. 11 bring about for both Israel and the world?

5. How important is it to see that Israel’s restoration by God also involves the whole Earth? (Do you think this is something emphasized by today’s Messianics? Why or why not?)

6. How futile are the gods of human making portrayed in the Book of Isaiah? List some key passages describing this with your personal thoughts.

7. How serious is it that the LORD is depicted as Savior throughout the Book of Isaiah? List some key passages describing this with your personal thoughts. How might this affect the soteriology of the Apostolic Scriptures, and its affirmation that Yeshua the Messiah is Savior?

8. What is the Servant of God designated to do in chs. 42 and 49? How might this affect not only the Messianic expectation realized in Yeshua, but also the missiology of His Apostles? (How does it affect you in your walk of faith?)

9. How important is it to understand that while God uses foreign nations to judge Israel for its sin, in restoring Israel God will judge those same nations for their sin?

10. In your own words, summarize the expectation of Zion’s restoration as seen in Isaiah.

11. What do we (probably) learn about the Millennium from Isaiah?

12. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Isaiah?

REFLECTION ON ISAIAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Isaiah:

BOOK OF JEREMIAH

Approximate date: 600s-500s B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: the Southern Kingdom before and immediately after the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem

Author: Jeremiah and/or Baruch (Right; some conservative-moderate); Baruch (some conservative-moderate); anonymous writers and editors (Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel or Jerusalem (Right, conservative-moderate); Land of Israel, Jerusalem, and/or Babylon (Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites before the Babylonian exile (Right, some conservative-moderate, some Left); Southern Kingdom Israelites during the Babylonian exile (some conservative-moderate, some Left); Southern Kingdom Israelites after the Babylonian exile (some Left)

People:

Jeremiah (son of Hilkiah), Josiah (son of Amon), Jehoiakim (son of Josiah), Zedekiah (son of Josiah), Baal (deity), Manasseh (son of Hezekiah), Pashhur (son of Immer) or Magor-Missabib, Zephaniah (priest), Nebuchadnezzar, Shallum (son of Josiah), Jehoiachin (son of Jehoiakim), Philistines, Micah, Uriah (son of Shemaiah), Elnathan (son of Acbor), Ahikam (son of Shaphan), Hananiah (son of Azzur), Elasah (son of Shaphan), Gemariah (son of Hilkiah), Ahab (son of Kolaiah), Zedekiah (son of Maaseiah), Shemaiah the Nehelamite, Jehoiada, Hanamel (son of Shallum), Baruch (son of Neriah, son of Mahseiah), Molech (deity), Jaazaniah (son of Jeremiah, son of Habazziniah), sons of Hanan, Igdaliah, Jonadab (son of Recab), Micaiah (son of Gemariah), palace officials (36:12), Jehudi, Elishama, Seraiah (son of Azriel), Shelemaiah (son of Abdiel), Jehucal (son of Shelemaiah), Irijah (son of Shelemaiah, son of Hananiah), Jonathan (secretary), Shephatiah (son of Mattan), Gedaliah (son of Pashhur), Jehucal (son of Shelemaiah), Pashhur (son of Malkijah), Ebed-Melech, Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar, Nebo-Sarsekim, Nebuzaradan, Nebushazban, Gedaliah (son of Ahikam), survivors left behind in Judah (40:8), Johanan (son of Kareah), Baalis (king), Ishmael (son of Nethaniah), Jezaniah (son of Hoshaiah), Queen of Heaven (deity), Hophra, Neco, Amon (deity), Chemosh (deity), Ammonites, Molech (deity), Heshbon (deity), Ben-Hadad (deity), Marduk (deity), Medes, Bel (deity), Hamutal (daughter of Jeremiah), Evil-Merodach

People mentioned:

David, Moses, Samuel, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Asa, Baasha, Esau, Solomon

Places:

Anathoth, Jerusalem, Egypt, Kittim, Kedar, Memphis, Tahpanhes, Shihor, Assyria, Tekoa, Beth Hakkerem, Sheba, Shiloh, Topheth (meaning, fireplace), Valley of Ben Hinnom, Edom, Ammon, Moab, Tarshish, Uphaz, Jordan, Perath, Negev, Lebanon, Potsherd Gate, Upper Gate, Babylon, Gilead, Bashan, Abarim, Samaria, Sodom, Gomorrah, Uz, Ashkelon, Gaza, Ekron, Ashdod, Tyre, Sidon, Dedan, Tema, Buz, Arabia, Zimri, Elam, Media, Sheshach, New Gate, Moresheth, Kiriath Jearim, Gibeon, Tower of Hananel, Corner Gate, Gareb, Goah, Kidron Valley, Horse Gate, Lachish, Azekah, Benjamin Gate, Middle Gate, Arabah, Riblah, land of Hamath, Ramah, Mizpah, Shechem, Geruth Kimham, Bethlehem, Migdol, Upper Egypt, Lower Egypt, Carchemish, Euphrates, Nile, Cush, Lydia, Tabor, Carmel, Thebes, Gaza, Caphtor, Ashkelon, Kiriathaim, Heshbon, Madmen, Horonaim, Bethel, Dibon, Holon, Jahzah, Mephaath, Beth Diblathaim, Beth Gamul, Beth Meon, Kerioth, Bozrah, Kir Hareseth, Jazer, Sibmah, Elealah, Jahaz, Zoar, Eglath Shelishiyah, Nimrim, Ai, Edom, Teman, Hamath, Arpad, Damascus, Hazor, Merathaim, Pekod, Leb Kamai, Ararat, Minni, Ashkenaz

Key Themes:

the Lord calls Jeremiah to serve Him as a prophet / the Lord accuses Israel of forsaking Him, in spite of the goodness He has demonstrated / God considers the faithless Northern Kingdom to be more righteous than the faithless Southern Kingdom / Jeremiah foretells a coming disaster upon Jerusalem from the north / because no one righteous can be found in Jerusalem, God will have no choice but to judge / the Lord will thoroughly judge Jerusalem via an army from the north, because its evil is so great and the people have rejected His Torah / Jeremiah prophesies the Lord’s judgment at the Temple gates, as He will not hesitate to judge Jerusalem and its sin as He previously punished Shiloh, the first place in Israel to experience His presence / great death and desolation will engulf the people of Judah, including mass exhumations / the gross idolatry of Judah, and its being led astray by false teachers, require God to enact serious judgment / God considers all of Israel to be uncircumcised of heart / the Lord speaks against adorning a tree for idolatrous worship, as such deities did not make Heaven and Earth as He did / the Lord decrees how some will be taken prisoner in the coming judgment, which is to leave Judah desolate / Jeremiah prays that God’s proper justice will prevail / the Lord condemns the people of Judah and Jerusalem for their disobedience to His covenant, and their forsaking of Him for Baal / the men of Anathoth plot to kill Jeremiah because of his prophecies, with the Lord telling him not to worry / Jeremiah asks the Lord why He does not allow His righteousness to prevail, judging the wicked / the Lord tells Jeremiah that He will uproot Judah and judge them, but later have compassion upon them and bring them home / the Lord explains to Jeremiah that Judah and Jerusalem have become like a worthless belt / the Lord will turn those in Jerusalem over to gross drunkenness / the Lord will cause His people to be taken into captivity because of their adulterating against Him / the Lord will send a drought against Judah and Jerusalem, not heeding their fasts or cries / the Lord chastises false prophets who tell His people there will be no sword or famine / the Lord says He would not show mercy even if Moses and Samuel were among the people / a promise of restoration is offered for repentance / while the Lord will severely judge His people for their sin, a restoration likened unto the Exodus is promised, one affecting not only Israel but also the nations who have known nothing but false gods / true strength and healing are to be found in the Lord, and not in human devices / Jeremiah speaks against the people of Jerusalem for working on the Sabbath / the Lord compares what He will do to Judah and Jerusalem as what a potter does with clay / Jeremiah pleads to the Lord as accusers plot to attack him / the Lord instructs Jeremiah to show Jerusalem that He will make them like broken pottery / Pashhur has Jeremiah taken away and beaten because of his prophecies at the Temple / the Prophet Jeremiah stands distraught before the Lord, having endured some terrible pain / Jeremiah tells King Zedekiah’s envoys that God has rejected his plea for deliverance, and that Jerusalem will be utterly assaulted by the Babylonians / the Lord proclaims judgment against the evil kings of Judah / God promises to raise up a Righteous Branch who will be responsible for the ultimate restoration of His scattered people / Jeremiah laments over the damage false prophets have done / the Lord warns those who hear false prophets who lie in His name / the Lord condemns false oracles spoken in His name without His expressed consent / those taken away into Babylonian captivity are compared to being a basket of good figs / the Prophet Jeremiah tells the Southern Kingdom of Judah that after twenty-three years of prophesying, and being rejected, God will send them into Babylonian exile for seventy years / the nations that had affairs with Judah will drink from the cup of God’s wrath / God’s ultimate judgment will affect all humanity / Jeremiah is not killed for prophesying against Jerusalem and the Temple, because Micah was not killed for making the same prophecy previously / King Jehoiakim has Uriah tracked to Egypt for making similar prophecies, and has him executed / the Lord tells the nations of the region that they, along with Judah, will fall under the yoke of Babylon / the Lord says not to listen to those who promise a soon restoration from Babylon / Hananiah prophesied falsely of a soon restoration of the Temple articles from Babylon / the Prophet Jeremiah sends a letter to exiles in Babylon, urging them to settle down and prosper, as the exile will only end in the Lord’s timing / Jeremiah warns the exiles in Babylon against false prophets raised up among them / Shemaiah the Nehelemite’s family will not survive the exile / a day is promised when Israel and Judah will be restored from their captivity / in spite of their incurable sin, God will have mercy upon Israel, accomplishing restitution / the Lord promises to return and to restore the people of Ephraim and Judah to the Promised Land, prospering them / the Lord promises a New Covenant with Israel and Judah, where His Torah is written on the hearts of His people / Jeremiah buys the field of his cousin Hanamel / in spite of the imminent collapse of Judah and Jerusalem, the Lord tells Jeremiah that Israel and Judah will be restored in the day that the Righteous Branch from David’s line arises / the Prophet Jeremiah tells King Zedekiah that he will be taken captive to Babylon / the Lord proclaims that judgment will be issued against Judah for not allowing slaves to go free after their designated period of service / the Recabites faithfully followed a command from their forefather not to drink wine / King Jehoiakim burns the scroll sent to him by the Prophet Jeremiah / Baruch and Jeremiah are hidden when their lives are in danger / the Prophet Jeremiah is cast into prison under the false charge of deserting to the Babylonians / Jeremiah is thrown into the cistern of Malkijah, only to be helped out by Ebed-Melech / Jeremiah tells King Zedekiah that his life will be spared if he hands himself over to the Babylonians / King Zedekiah attempts to escape to Jerusalem, but is captured by the Babylonians and has his sons killed before him / Zedekiah is blinded and taken as a prisoner back to Babylon / Nebuchadnezzar orders generous treatment of the Prophet Jeremiah / the Prophet Jeremiah does not have to go to Babylon along with the others / Gedaliah, the Babylonian governor of Judah, is assassinated / Jeremiah instructs people from the remnant left behind in Judah not to leave for Egypt / the Lord tells Jeremiah that those fleeing to Egypt will meet calamity when the Babylonians decide to attack / the Lord promises judgment on the Jews who fled to Egypt, who have fallen into idolatry by worshipping the Queen of Heaven / the Lord promises Jeremiah an escape, even if the people face disaster / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Egypt / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning the Philistines / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Moab / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Ammon / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Edom / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Damascus / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Kedar and Hazor / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Elam / Jeremiah issues a prophecy concerning Babylon / the city of Jerusalem falls to the Babylonians / King Jehoiachin, in Babylonian exile, is treated kindly by Evil-Merodach

Key Scriptures: Jeremiah 1:5; 2:19; 4:3-4, 18-22; 6:16-19; 7:2-7; 8:8-9; 9:13-14, 25-26; 10:1-5, 23-25; 12:1-3; 14:13-16; 16:10-21; 17:5, 7-10; 23:5-8, 16-18; 30:1-3; 31:10-11, 18-20, 31-34; 33:6-9, 11, 14-16; 50:4-10 / God’s Judgment on Judah (1:1-45:5); God’s Judgment on the Nations (46:1-52:34)

Theological Summary: The Book of Jeremiah (Heb. Yirmayahu) covers the prophetic ministry of Jeremiah, with most of his prophecies being delivered immediately before the conquering of the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Jeremiah is unique in that it covers more biographical and personal data than any of the other Tanach Prophets, and truly gives us an insight into who Jeremiah was as a man who served God.[1] Jeremiah’s immediate prophetic predecessor was Zephaniah, with Habakkuk and Obadiah probably being prophetic contemporaries. The sources we have to reconstruct the period of Jeremiah’s ministry are largely found in the narratives of 2 Kings 21-25 and 2 Chronicles 33-36, and some of the Prophets who succeeded him such as Nahum and Ezekiel.[2]

The Book of Jeremiah has come under some substantial criticism over the past several hundred years, particularly in liberal theological circles. It is imperative for anyone who examines the text to disregard “modern notions regarding coherent structure, logical development, and chronological sequence…Jeremiah is not a modern book and must not be judged by those standards” (ISBE),[3] as Jeremiah simply does not operate from a modern or postmodern framework of “accuracy.” Notably, Jeremiah is the longest book of the Hebrew Bible by a word count, with significant sections composed in poetry and prose, as well as personal pleadings. The Talmud indicates that Jeremiah was once placed as the first of the Prophets (b.Bava Batra 14b-15a),[4] a place now held by Isaiah.

Jeremiah was a member of the priestly house of Hilkiah, from Anathoth (1:1), and may have been a descendant of Abiathar (1 Kings 2:26). Jeremiah was a prophet who forecasted doom for Judah, and as a direct result he had few friends. However, one of those closest to him was his scribe Baruch, who often wrote down his prophecies as they were dictated (26:4-32). Jeremiah’s life was continually in danger (11:18-23; 26:8; 38:6), and he has often been described as the “weeping prophet” (Feinberg, EXP).[5] Jewish tradition largely holds that he was stoned to death while in Egypt (cf. Hebrews 11:37).[6]

Rabbinic tradition indicates that Jeremiah actually wrote his own book (b.Bava Batra 15a),[7] but upon careful scrutiny of the text this seems doubtful. The prophetic oracles are arranged in a narrative and historical framework that was surely not written by Jeremiah. The most logical choice for the final composition of Jeremiah then falls to Baruch (36:32). Conservative theologians generally feel that all of the prophetic oracles in Jeremiah are genuinely Jeremianic, with Baruch being responsible for the narrative and biographical material.[8] “[T]he book of Jeremiah is composed of a minimum of two sources” (ISBE),[9] those sources being Jeremiah’s prophecies and Baruch’s narration.

Ch. 52 is widely acknowledged to be an appendix to Jeremiah, probably an addendum composed by Baruch.[10] We also cannot disclude the possibility of further redaction of Jeremiah after Baruch, or more likely that some of Jeremiah’s prophecies were composed by people other than Baruch.

Liberals largely feel that Jeremiah did not reach its final form until after the Babylonian exile. They generally argue for three main source strands for Jeremiah: genuine Jeremianic prophecies, Baruch’s redactions, and anonymous source material.[11] It is sometimes called “a compilation of compilations” (IDB).[12] Liberals concede that there is some genuine material in the text originating from Jeremiah, but that it would be difficult to filter out with all of the presumed other additions. Whereas conservatives primarily argue that any additions to the prophecies are the narrative plots given by Baruch, liberals argue for substantially more change.[13]

It is not uncommon to see liberals also argue for the final editors of Jeremiah to be associated with the so-called Deuteronomist school,[14] with extreme liberals actually arguing that the Book of Jeremiah influenced the composition of Deuteronomy[15] (see Deuteronomy entry for a summarization of the Deuteronomist view). Liberals often assert, “the chaotic nature of the book was the result of this long process of editing pre-existing sources” (New Interpreter’s Study Bible).[16] It is frequently argued that the Book of Jeremiah is reflective upon how the Jewish exiles must now deal with God considering that Jerusalem and the Temple have been destroyed, and their independence has been taken from them. Thus, liberals commonly assert that Jeremiah did not reach its final form until after the Babylonian exile, and is the result of Jewish communities trying to rebuild their nation.

The text of Jeremiah is problematic, with two distinct versions of Jeremiah in existence.[17] The Hebrew Masoretic Text edition is the base for most English translations. However, the Greek Septuagint version is one-eighth shorter, with some chapters laid out differently. Chs. 46-51 from the MT appear between 25:13-15 in the LXX.[18] Some believe that the LXX is a witness to an alternative Hebrew edition that once existed. It is also fair to say that the turmoil surrounding Jeremiah’s life accounts for the two versions, with more than one collection of his messages circulating when Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians.[19] We do know that a part of Jeremiah’s prophecies were burned by King Jehoiakim (26:32), which meant that it would have to be re-written.[20]

One of the textual traditions clearly stands behind the LXX, whereas the longer textual tradition is what was traditionally used by Judaism. Witnesses to both textual traditions were discovered at Qumran among the Dead Sea Scrolls,[21] causing some to speculate that the Hebrew vorlage behind the LXX was expanded into the current MT version.[22] Some feel “that the MT of Jeremiah, originating in Palestine, is full of secondary expansions…while the LXX, originating in Egypt, gives in most cases a ‘purer,’ less expanded text tradition” (Holladay, IDBSup).[23] “The debate since Qumran has shifted, focusing now on the relationship between these two different text types” (Dillard and Longman).[24]

The fact that there are two versions of Jeremiah’s prophecies should neither affect nor subtract from Jeremiah’s message. However, knowing (or not knowing) about this can affect our exegesis where Jeremiah (perhaps from the LXX) is quoted in the Greek Apostolic Scriptures.

Jeremiah’s prophecies were delivered during the final period of the Southern Kingdom from the reigns of Josiah to Zedekiah in the Seventh-Sixth Centuries B.C.E.,[25] with Jeremiah likely beginning his ministry in 627-626 B.C.E. Jeremiah was commissioned for the Lord’s work against the backdrop of the expanding Babylonian Empire and the fall of Assyria.[26] The Egyptians attempt to defeat the Babylonians, but are defeated instead. Tensions are rife in the Judahite court between those who favor an alliance with Egypt, and Jeremiah who favors Babylon. The Prophet Jeremiah is politically engaged, believing that opposing Babylon was contrary to God’s will.

While prophetic, Jeremiah is interspersed with historical data. It is easy for some interpreters to be confused as to which is which, as Jeremiah’s oracles are likely not composed in any distinct chronological order. But “In spite of the fact that the book is not at all in chronological order, it is possible to date many of its sections because they contain chronological notations” (NIDB).[27] Furthermore, the discovery of the Lachish letters in 1932-1938 has shed some interesting light on the possible circumstances surrounding Jeremiah,[28] possibly being a major extra-Biblical witness to his existence. We find that many of Jeremiah’s prophecies were fulfilled in the short term following his ministry, yet many remain to be fulfilled in the future.

Divine judgment is a major theme seen in the Book of Jeremiah, but so are repentance and restitution also major themes. God is portrayed as the Creator of all, and One who is in control of the affairs of humanity. The Prophet Jeremiah in his service to Him is concerned with the responsibility of the individual, and indicates many times that sin will have its consequences. “The idea of a close, personal walk with God lies at the heart of Jeremiah’s conception of being a prophet” (NBCR).[29] While God will judge His people, He nevertheless promises a New Covenant where they will be restored to His favor (31:31-34). We see that Judah as a state would be judged, but individuals would not be lost to God’s grace. Jeremiah frequently speaks words of rebuke to false prophets who would deter God’s plan.

The message of Jeremiah was not popular. The most significant factor that led to Jeremiah’s widescale rejection was his support of Babylon as God’s instrument of judgment upon corporate Judah. Jeremiah warns the people of their sin, and urges individuals to repent and seek restitution with God. Jeremiah does offer hope, but recognizes that chastisement is necessary. Some theologians have compared Jeremiah to being like Moses, but unlike Moses seeing his people out of bondage, Jeremiah oversees them entering the exile.[30]

The time period of Jeremiah is very important for anyone to understand the ultimate restoration of Israel. “Included in Jeremiah’s vision of a new future for Judah and Israel was…a restored line of David, embodied in the person of the Messiah (33:14-26)” (ISBE).[31] These are undoubtedly themes that we see in the ministry of Yeshua and His Apostles.

There is presently not a great deal of Messianic examination of Jeremiah as a whole. We may occasionally see bits and pieces of teaching dealing with certain end-time themes, or the promise of a New Covenant. Yet, the historical and textual issues of Jeremiah are seldom, if ever, addressed. Today’s emerging Messianic movement would do well to improve its understanding of Jeremiah, and his sincere call for the people to return to God and His ways of obedience.

Bibliography

Cawley, F., and A.R. Millard. “Jeremiah,” in NBCR, pp 626-658.

Diamond, A.R. Pete. “Jeremiah,” in ECB, pp 543-616.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Jeremiah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 285-302.

Feinberg, Charles L. “Jeremiah,” in EXP, 6:357-691.

Graybill, John B. “Jeremiah, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 508-509.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Jeremiah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 801-821.

Holladay, W.L. “Jeremiah the Prophet,” in IDBSup, pp 470-472.

Lundbom, Jack R. “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:706-721.

Muilenburg, J. “Jeremiah the Prophet,” in IDB, 2:823-835.

O’Connor, Kathleen M. “Jeremiah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1051-1139.

Soderlund, S.K. “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:985-991.

Sweeney, Marvin A. “Jeremiah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 686-689.

________________. “Jeremiah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 917-1041.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Jeremiah

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 808-809; Jack R. Lundbom, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:707; Dillard and Longman, pp 287-289.

[2] S.K. Soderlund, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:985.

[3] Soderlund, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:987; cf. Dillard and Longman, pp 289-291.

[4] “Our rabbis have taught on Tannaite authority: This is the correct order of the prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, the twelve prophets” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

Cf. Marvin A. Sweeney, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in EDB, 686.

[5] Charles L. Feinberg, “Jeremiah,” in EXP, 6:358-360.

[6] Cf. F. Cawley and A.R. Millard, “Jeremiah,” in NBCR, 627.

[7] “Jeremiah wrote the book that is called by his name, the book of Kings, and Lamentations” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[8] John B. Graybill, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 508.

[9] Soderlund, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:989.

[10] Ibid., 2:988.

[11] Lundbom, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:712-716.

[12] J. Muilenburg, “Jeremiah the Prophet,” in IDB, 2:831.

[13] Lundbom, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:711-712; Sweeney, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 687-688.

[14] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 805.

[15] Ibid., pp 810-811.

[16] Kathleen M. O’Connor, “Jeremiah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1052.

[17] Muilenburg, “Jeremiah the Prophet,” in IDB, 2:831; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 817-818; Cawley and Millard, in NBCR, 627; Graybill, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 508; Soderlund, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:990; Lundbom, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:707-708; Dillard and Longman, pp 291-294.

[18] Cf. Archaeological Study Bible, 1240.

[19] Graybill, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 508.

[20] Feinberg, in EXP, 6:362; Dillard and Longman, 290.

[21] Sweeney, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 686-687.

[22] Marvin A. Sweeney, “Jeremiah,” in Jewish Study Bible, 919.

[23] W.L. Holladay, “Jeremiah the Prophet,” in IDBSup, 472.

[24] Dillard and Longman, 292.

[25] Feinberg, in EXP, 6:363-367.

[26] Cawley and Millard, in NBCR, 626; Soderlund, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:985; Dillard and Longman, pp 286-287.

[27] Graybill, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 508; cf. Soderlund, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:988; Dillard and Longman, 302.

[28] Graybill, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 508, 509.

[29] Cawley and Millard, in NBCR, 628.

[30] Dillard and Longman, pp 299-300; Sweeney, in Jewish Study Bible, 917.

[31] Soderlund, “Jeremiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:986.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON JEREMIAH:

1. Having just surveyed Jeremiah, what feature of its prophecies, oracles, rebukes, and/or promises strikes you as being the most significant? What will require further study and investigation on your part?

2. In surveying the Book of Jeremiah, did you find it difficult to examine prophecies and words that are not particularly narrated in a chronological order? Explain.

3. Summarize the severity with which the Lord chastises Israel for its faithlessness and idolatry toward Him. How did God’s rebuke through Jeremiah affect all Israel, or affect just the (prior dispersed) Northern Kingdom or Southern Kingdom?

4. What were some of the specific sins that required God to judge His people? What lessons do you think Believers today can learn from this?

5. How critical is it for us to place Jeremiah’s prophetic oracles into some kind of historical context?

6. Why do you think the Lord would not hear the prayers and fasting of His people?

7. What were some of the dangers that Jeremiah faced in his prophetic ministry?

8. What does Jeremiah prophesy concerning the restoration of Israel? How does this involve the initiation of the New Covenant (31:31-34; cf. Hebrews 8:8-12; 10:16-17)?

9. How broad-sweeping are Jeremiah’s prophecies not just concerning Israel, but also the powers contemporary to Israel? How many of those prophecies do you think have been fulfilled? How many do you think might have future fulfillment?

10. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Jeremiah?

REFLECTION ON JEREMIAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Jeremiah:

BOOK OF EZEKIEL

Approximate date: 593-573 B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: hopeless Judah in exile

Author(s): Ezekiel (Right; some conservative-moderate); Ezekiel and/or additional editors (some conservative-moderate); Ezekiel and/or anonymous writers and editors (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): Land of Israel, Jerusalem, and/or Babylon (Right, conservative-moderate); Babylon and/or Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites at the beginning of the Babylonian exile (Right, some conservative-moderate, Left); Southern Kingdom Israelites during the Babylonian exile (some conservative-moderate, some Left); Southern Kingdom Israelites after the Babylonian exile (some Left)

People:

Jehoiachin, Ezekiel (son of Buzi), Jaazaniah son of Shaphan, Tammuz, Pelatiah son of Benaiah, Oholah and Oholibah, Kerethites, Nebuchadnezzar

People mentioned:

Noah, Daniel, Job, Babylonians, Canaanites, (an) Amorite, (a) Hittite, Egyptians, Philistines, Assyrians, Babylonians, Sabeans, Abraham, David, Zadok

Places:

Kebar River, land of Babylon, Tel Abib, Jerusalem, Diblah, Lebanon, Egypt, Rabbah of the Ammonites, Chaldea, Pekod, Shoa, Koa, Moab, Beth Jeshimoth, Baal Meon, Kiriathaim, Edom, Teman, Dedan, Tyre, Senir, Bashan, Elishah, Sidon, Arvad, Gebal, Persia, Lydia, Put, Helech, Gammad, Tarshish, Greece, Tubal, Meshech, Beth Togarmah, Rhodes, Aram, Minnith, Damascus, Helbon, Zahar, Uzal, Kedar, Sheba, Raamah, Haran, Canneh, Eden, Asshur, Kilmad, Nile, Migdol, Aswan, Cush, Arabia, Libya, Memphis, Zoan, Thebes, Pelusium (Sin), Heliopolis, Bubastis, Tahpanhes, Assyria, Mount Seir, Gomer, En Gedi, En Eglaim, Great Sea, boundaries of restored Israel (47:15-21)

Places mentioned:

Samaria, Sodom

Key Themes:

Ezekiel has a vision of four living creatures and of God’s glory / the Lord calls Ezekiel as a prophet to an obstinate and hardened Israel / the Lord emphasizes the severity of Ezekiel’s calling to warn the people / the Lord has Ezekiel take specific physical actions that symbolize the siege of Jerusalem, and the ensuing consequences of Israel’s sin / Ezekiel issues a prophecy against the mountains of Israel / Ezekiel declares how God will enact a thorough judgment against the Land of Israel by the most wicked of nations / Ezekiel is shown all of the idolatry and abominations committed in the Temple / those who commit idolatry will be killed / the glory of God departs from the Temple / the Lord declares judgment against the leaders of Israel because of rejecting His commandments / the Lord has Ezekiel pack up and leave, symbolizing the exile / the Lord condemns false prophets who give lying words of hope to the people and who ensnare them in sinful ways / the severity of practicing idolatry is emphasized / the Lord declares how the unfaithfulness of a nation against Him will not be tolerated, as the righteous will only be able to save themselves / Jerusalem is considered to be a worthless vine / Ezekiel uses diverse allegories to describe the unfaithfulness of Jerusalem / the Lord uses a story of two eagles and a vine to describe King Nebuchadnezzar taking away the nobles of Judah, and putting his own ruler in power / the Lord gives Ezekiel specific sins that will merit the death penalty upon a person / Ezekiel takes up a lament for Israel’s princes / the Lord has Ezekiel recall the rebellious acts of Israel from the Exodus to the present / in spite of Israel’s desire to be rebellious against the Lord, He will not allow it and He promises to restore Israel / God says that Babylon will be raised up as an instrument of His judgment / the Lord details some of the specific sins committed by Jerusalem against Him / the Lord vividly describes the unfaithfulness of Israel and Judah as two sisters engaged in prostitution / God gives Ezekiel a description of a cooking pot with meat to describe the downfall of Judah and Jerusalem / Ezekiel’s wife will die / the Ammonites will be judged because they rejoiced over the fall of Judah / God will inflict punishment upon Moab / God will inflict punishment upon Edom / God will inflict punishment upon the Philistines / God will inflict punishment upon Tyre, from thinking that it would prosper from Jerusalem’s fall / a lament is issued for Tyre’s fall, recalling all of those who traded with the city / a prophecy is issued against the king of Tyre / a prophecy is issued against Sidon / a prophecy is issued against Egypt / a lament is issued for Egypt / the downfall of Assyria, a cedar in Lebanon, is recalled because of what will encounter Egypt / a lament is issued for the Pharaoh of Egypt / the Lord explains to Ezekiel what his role is as a watchman / the Lord speaks against those who would try to retake the Land of Israel after it had fallen / the Lord speaks against the false shepherds of Israel / the Lord proclaims judgment against Mount Seir and Edom / Ezekiel speaks of how the mountains of Israel will once again be fruitful / the Lord says that He will restore His people to the Promised Land, giving them hearts of flesh by His Spirit / the Lord will resurrect the dry bones of Israel / the Lord will reunite Judah, Ephraim, and their associated companions, returning them to the Promised Land to be ruled by “David” / a prophecy is issued against Gog, who will be responsible for gathering an alliance against Israel, but will be defeated / the defeat of Gog will serve as a testimony of the Lord’s faithfulness toward Israel / the Prophet Ezekiel is shown a vision of the new Temple, including both its dimensions and functions / the Prophet Ezekiel is told how the Land of Israel is to be divided in the new order / the Prophet Ezekiel is told how the appointed times will be observed in the new order / a river will flow from the Temple, turning the Dead Sea into a lake with fresh water / the division of the restored Land of Israel by tribe is detailed / the dimensions of the restored city of Jerusalem are given

Key Scriptures: Ezekiel 3:16-19; 6:8-10; 7:26-27; 12:15-16; 13:1-12; 14:4-5, 12-14; 18:21-23; 20:32-38; 22:6-13; 28:24-26; 33:1-6; 34:11-16; 36:24-29; 37:4-8, 15-28; 38:15-16; 39:9-10, 21-24; 43:6-11; 47:21-23; 48:35 / Messages of Doom (1:1-24:27); Messages Against Foreign Nations (25:1-32:32); Messages of Hope (33:1-48:35)

Theological Summary: The Book of Ezekiel (Heb. Yechezkel) can be one of the most difficult to interpret among the prophetic texts of the Tanach. Ezekiel is one of the most involved Biblical books in regard to ancient history, as Ezekiel’s prophecies are given against the backdrop of the Southern Kingdom’s judgment and exile to Babylon. Ezekiel himself, from a priestly family (1:1), was an exile to Babylon taken there along with King Jehoiachin (cf. 2 Kings 24:8-17), and while in Babylon was commissioned to be a prophet (1:1-3). Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry overlapped that of Jeremiah. Being from a priestly line, his prophecies included an emphasis on the Temple and its rituals (chs. 8-11; 40-48). Deeply entwined in Ezekiel’s words are an innate knowledge, on his part, of the affairs of his contemporary world.[1] Ezekiel was a person who directly involved himself in the importance of his prophecies, sometimes speaking as though his audience is right there as is the case when he addresses God’s judgment on foreign powers.[2] While in Babylon, Ezekiel had a large degree of freedom.

Many of Ezekiel’s prophecies include stated dates as to when they are delivered, allowing interpreters to approximate the time that Ezekiel served as a prophet. Some commentators have devised elaborate charts attempting to calculate the exact dates that certain prophecies were delivered.[3] Ezekiel prophesied both before and after the exiles were taken to Babylon, over a period of about 25 years. The principal audience of Ezekiel was exilic.

Ezekiel is very clearly named in the text as the one delivering the prophecies (1:3). Whether Ezekiel actually wrote down these prophecies, or had a scribe or a group surrounding him write them down, is another issue.[4] Jewish tradition in the Talmud holds that the figures of the Great Synagogue composed the Book of Ezekiel in the early post-exilic period (b.Bava Batra 15a).[5]

The Book of Ezekiel is very autobiographical,[6] and most conservatives lean toward some form of literary unity. Literary unity does not mean that Ezekiel could not have edited his own prophecies, or for that matter have had a disciple of his edit and compile them.[7] “[T]he book of Ezekiel is not a collection of oracles strung together by an editor, but manifests all the signs of having a thorough plan behind its composition” (ABD).[8] It is also not impossible that some additional editing of Ezekiel took place after the exile to add historical statements giving the book some context.[9]

Severe criticism of the Book of Ezekiel did not begin until the second quarter of the Twentieth Century,[10] as liberal scholarship had actually held to some form of unity for the text.[11] Liberals who make note of Ezekiel’s priestly status will place significant importance on Ezekiel being influenced by the so-called Priestly materials or P source of the Pentateuch.[12] Liberals today generally argue that Ezekiel is an edited book, based on perceived inconsistencies in chronology, perhaps indicating multiple sources for its composition.[13] Some of the first liberal positions regarding Ezekiel afforded no more than one-seventh of the Ezekiel material to Ezekiel himself.[14] Most liberals have become more moderate in their criticism, holding that Ezekiel prophesied in multiple locations, Jerusalem and Babylon,[15] a position also held by many conservatives.[16]

Past liberal scholarship thought that the Book of Ezekiel was a post-exilic work, perhaps composed as late as the Third Century B.C.E.[17] C.C. Torrey perhaps held to the most extreme view: “the prophecy was a literary creation, and Ezekiel was not an historical individual” (Dillard and Longman).[18] While other liberals considered Ezekiel historical, they nevertheless considered the Prophet himself to be a mentally disturbed individual.[19]

The Book of Ezekiel does contain some Aramaisms, which would be expected considering a likely Babylonian location for its composition.[20] Ezekiel does demonstrate some words that are difficult to translate into English, which may be on account of copyist errors.[21] Conservatives such as Harrison feel “The text of Ezekiel has been poorly preserved, due partly to the fact that obscurities in the language, as well as technical expressions…led copyists into frequent error.”[22] Some have noted that the Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezekiel is corrupt in places, and needs to be amended by its Septuagint and Syriac translations.[23] There are other conservatives who believe that Ezekiel in the MT as it stands is relatively intact, with no significant need to augment one’s study with ancient sources.[24]

Ezekiel’s prophecies begin with him delivering some stern words of God’s judgment against his fellow Jews regarding the fall of Jerusalem (chs. 1-24). Some theologians believe these prophecies were delivered while in Babylon, re-examining why the Jewish exiles were there, whereas many others believe that these prophecies were delivered circa 593-587 B.C.E. by Ezekiel in Jerusalem,[25] with the remainder of his prophecies being delivered while in Babylon. The circumstances of the exile were not easy for the Jews in Babylon. The exiles needed to live at peace with themselves in their new environment because God’s punishment was not going to be shortened or lifted. Much of Ezekiel’s prophecies are judgments levied against Ancient Israel’s neighbors of Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, and Egypt (chs. 25-32). The remainder of Ezekiel’s prophecies concern the restoration and revival of Israel and its prominence (chs. 33-48).

A major theme seen in the Book of Ezekiel is God’s sovereignty over the affairs of history. God reveals Himself through His direct interjection into human events, and uses various powers to accomplish His tasks. God is able to respond to His people without Jerusalem standing, and can respond to their needs while in exile. Ezekiel follows a basic pattern of delivering his prophecies, pronouncing (1) judgment against Israel, (2) judgment against the world, and (3) consolation of Israel. Ezekiel balances words of judgment with the promise of restoration. In chs. 8-11 Ezekiel prophesies the destruction of Solomon’s Temple, but promises a restored and renewed temple in chs. 40-48. “The Lord has determined, for the sake of the divine reputation in the world, to restore and to transform Israel so that all might come to recognize the Lord as the only God” (New Interpreter’s Study Bible).[26]

There is a great amount of debate among interpreters as to how much or how little of Ezekiel is futuristic.[27] It is very safe to say that much of Ezekiel uses bizarre imagery,[28] which is widely given a great deal of significance in the Jewish mystical tradition,[29] particularly as it concerns God’s throne (ch. 1). Many Jewish interpreters today tend to see Ezekiel’s Messianic Age as fulfilled somewhat in the return of the exiles and the reconstruction of Jerusalem. The Book of Ezekiel certainly does give a reader a picture of the transition that took place before and after the exile.[30]

Christian interpreters tend to see much future fulfillment ahead to be accomplished via the Second Coming of Yeshua the Messiah. In this framework, however, it is easy to see that too many prophecy teachers make things out of Ezekiel that are not implied by the original context of various passages,[31] mostly to force current events to fit some kind of sensational teaching. Likewise, there is a great deal of Christian variance on how to interpret Ezekiel’s Temple vision (chs. 40-48), with some opting for a literal fulfillment and others for a symbolic fulfillment.[32]

The Book of Revelation in the Apostolic Scriptures is profoundly affected by the imagery and words of Ezekiel.[33] The concepts of the holy city of New Jerusalem and the redeemed Earth are seen significantly in Ezekiel.[34] Some have even suggested some continuity between Ezekiel and themes seen in the Gospel of John.[35]

It does need to be noted that while Ezekiel was accepted into the Jewish canon of Scripture, “It was only after certain safeguards had been established” (IDB),[36] so as to avoid some gross misinterpretation.[37] Some Messianic examiners have attempted to study Ezekiel in detail, mostly as it concerns Ezekiel’s emphasis on Israel’s restoration. It is certainly good that Messianics today see the importance to examine the prophecies of Israel’s restoration. However, most Messianic examination of Ezekiel is often devoid of any historical setting for his prophecies, and could likewise be too influenced by mystical Jewish views. These are certainly things to remedy in the future as a more comprehensive view of Ezekiel emerges.

Bibliography

Alexander, Ralph H. “Ezekiel,” in EXP, 6:737-996.

Beasley-Murray, G.R. “Ezekiel,” in NBCR, pp 664-687.

Boadt, Lawrence, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:711-722.

Brownlee, W.H., and W.S. LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:250-263.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Ezekiel,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 313-327.

Gates, John F. “Ezekiel, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 336-337.

Goldingay, John A. “Ezekiel,” in ECB, pp 623-664.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Ezekiel,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 822-855.

Howie, C.G. “Ezekiel,” in IDB, 2:203-213.

Klein, Ralph W. “Ezekiel, Book of,” in EDB, pp 446-448.

Matties, Gordon. “Ezekiel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1153-1229.

Sweeney, Marvin A. “Ezekiel,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1042-1138.

Zimmerli, W. “Ezekiel,” in IDBSup, pp 314-317.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Ezekiel

[1] Ralph H. Alexander, “Ezekiel,” in EXP, 6:737-739; Lawrence Boadt, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:713-714.

[2] G.R. Beasley-Murray, “Ezekiel,” in NBCR, 665.

[3] Alexander, in EXP, 6:740-741; Boadt, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:713; Dillard and Longman, 315.

[4] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 839.

[5] “The Men of the Great Assembly wrote Ezekiel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Daniel, and the scroll of Esther” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 823.

[6] John F. Gates, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in NIDB, 336.

[7] W.H. Brownlee and W.S. LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:258.

[8] Boadt, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:719.

[9] Brownlee and LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:258-259.

[10] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 823-832; Alexander, in EXP, 6:739.

[11] Dillard and Longman, 316.

[12] Boadt, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:717.

[13] C.G. Howie, “Ezekiel,” in IDB, 2:206-207; Boadt, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:715-716.

[14] Beasley-Murray, in NBCR, 664; Brownlee and LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:251.

[15] Beasley-Murray, in NBCR, 664.

[16] Brownlee and LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:252.

[17] Ibid., 2:251.

[18] Dillard and Longman, 317.

[19] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 849-852; Dillard and Longman, 319.

[20] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 847.

[21] Boadt, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:716.

[22] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 854.

[23] Howie, “Ezekiel,” in IDB, 2:213; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 854-855; Dillard and Longman, 320.

[24] Alexander, in EXP, 6:746.

[25] Gates, “Ezekiel, Book of,” in NIDB, 336.

[26] Gordon Matties, “Ezekiel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1153.

[27] Brownlee and LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:262-263.

[28] Marvin A. Sweeney, “Ezekiel,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1042.

[29] Brownlee and LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:260; Sweeney, in Jewish Study Bible, 1043.

[30] Howie, “Ezekiel,” in IDB, 2:211.

[31] Dillard and Longman, 322.

[32] Ibid., 323.

[33] Beasley-Murray, in NBCR, 665; Dillard and Longman, 326.

[34] Howie, “Ezekiel,” in IDB, 2:211.

[35] Ibid., 2:212.

[36] Howie, “Ezekiel,” in IDB, 2:212; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 823.

[37] Brownlee and LaSor, “Ezekiel,” in ISBE, 2:260.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON EZEKIEL:

1. Upon reading Ezekiel, what features of the text jumped out at you, perhaps requiring more investigation? (Did you notice any parallels or similarities between the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation?)

2. What was the specific call placed upon Ezekiel by God?

3. Summarize some of the prophecies and decrees issued by Ezekiel against Israel, Judah, Jerusalem, and the Israelites in general.

4. Summarize some of the prophecies and decrees issued by Ezekiel against Israel’s (and/or Judah’s) enemies.

5. How significant is Ezekiel 37 for understanding the doctrine of resurrection and the end-times? Do you believe these prophecies have been fulfilled? Why or why not?

6. What do you believe will/may take place in the Gog-Magog conflict of Ezekiel 38? Why does this take place?

7. What are some important features that you noticed about Ezekiel’s vision of a restored Land of Israel and Temple complex?

8. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Ezekiel?

REFLECTION ON EZEKIEL’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Ezekiel:

BOOK OF HOSEA

Approximate date: 755-715 B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate); 700s-600s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: impending calamity on the Northern Kingdom via Assyria

Author(s): Hosea and/or a close associate (Right, conservative-moderate); followers of Hosea, writers and editors (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): Northern Kingdom of Israel (Right, some conservative-moderate); somewhere in the Land of Israel (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Northern Kingdom Israelites prior to the Assyrian exile (Right, conservative-moderate; some Left); Southern Kingdom Israelites after the conquering of the Northern Kingdom (some Left)

People:

Hosea, Gomer, Jezreel, Lo-Ruhamah, House of Judah, Lo-Ammi, Ephraim or Israel (Northern Kingdom)

People mentioned:

Beeri, Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Jeroboam (son of Joash), Diblaim, house of Jehu, Baal(s) (deity), David, Adam, Jacob

Places:

Valley of Jezreel, Samaria, Bethel

Places mentioned:

Valley of Achor, Egypt, Gilgal, Beth Aven, Mizpah, Tabor, Gibeah, Ramah, Benjamin, Gilead, Shechem, Assyria, Memphis, Baal Peor, Tyre, Beth Arbel, Admah, Zeboiim, Aram, Lebanon

Key Themes:

Hosea is called by God to marry Gomer / Gomer bears three children: Jezreel, Lo-Ruhamah, Lo-Ammi / God compares Israel’s unfaithfulness to the adultery of a wife / adulterous Israel will not find satisfaction in its “lovers” / adulterous Israel will not return to the Lord and be restored / God commands Hosea to be reconciled to his adulterous wife Gomer / God condemns the priests of Israel and their faithless service / God condemns the specific sinful actions of the Northern Kingdom of Ephraim / the condition of unrepentant Israel is explained / God decrees that His restoration of Ephraim will still expose their sins / Israel (Northern Kingdom) in spite of outwardly acknowledging the Lord, will still be judged by Him because of an inherent failure to obey / Ephraim will suffer exile to the very countries that it adulterated with, as it is engrossed in severe judgment / in spite of Ephraim’s rebellion, God’s affection for the people prevents Him from completely destroying them, and He promises restoration / God describes how casting Israel away is consistent with His actions in the past / God decrees that the reason Ephraim must be judged is because they have forgotten Him as Savior, instead going after idols / God calls Israel to return to Him and experience blessing

Key Scriptures: Hosea 1:10-11; 2:16-20; 3:1; 4:1-2, 5-6; 5:9-10; 6:1-3, 6; 7:1-2; 11:1, 6-9, 12; 12:6, 9; 13:4 / Hosea’s wayward wife (1:1-3:5); God’s wayward people (4:1-14:9)

Theological Summary: The Book of Hosea is the first text among the Twelve Prophets in the Jewish order of the Tanach, because among these books it is probably one of the oldest (b.Bava Batra 14b).[1] In the Christian division of the Bible, Hosea is placed as the first of the Minor Prophets.

The name of the Prophet Hosea or Hoshea is derived from the root yasha, meaning “to save,” and even though the Book of Hosea details many of the problems of Ancient Israel, redemption is a major theme. Hosea prophesied to the Northern Kingdom of Israel after the period of Amos, who himself prophesied judgment upon the Northern Kingdom via an unnamed enemy. Hosea names this enemy as Assyria (7:11; 8:9; 10:6; 11:11). Most scholars agree that Hosea was from the Northern Kingdom of Israel/Ephraim, even though we cannot know for certain.[2] If indeed Hosea came from the Northern Kingdom, then his is one of only two prophetic works originating from it.[3]

Hosea criticizes the Northern Kingdom of Israel for its alliance with Assyria, and accuses the leadership of deliberately leading the people away from worship of the Lord. While outside influences had existed since the division of Israel, it reached its peak during the time of Hosea.[4] Hosea calls the people of the Northern Kingdom back to the covenant of Sinai,[5] and likens their condition to a state of adultery. Messages that predominate the prophecies of Hosea include Israel’s abandonment of God, God’s punishment upon the Northern Kingdom, and the hope of reconciliation between God and all of Israel including the Southern Kingdom.

It is unknown whether Hosea wrote down his own prophecies, or someone else compiled them. Hosea is often referred to as one of the “writing prophets” (Seow, ABD).[6] Some conservatives believe that Hosea did write down his own prophecies, or at least some of them.[7] Others, however, feel that they were written down later and compiled into a narrated form. Particular arguments against total authorship by Hosea often relate to references to the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and how Hosea as a prophet to the Northern Kingdom of Israel/Ephraim could not include references to the Southern Kingdom. Many conservatives feel that although Hosea’s primary message was to the Northern Kingdom, he by no means excluded the Southern Kingdom as God wanted to eventually see all Israel reunified. Conservatives do not doubt the possibility of some final editing[8] of Hosea, particularly in the narrative sections.

Liberal commentators, however, generally feel that the Book of Hosea has been thoroughly edited. They usually argue that the prophecies of Hosea were collected by his followers, and then compiled into a volume,[9] having been written in third person. While this somewhat mirrors what many conservatives believe, liberals often go a step further and suggest that the text was modified by a Judean hand.[10] Some extreme liberals of the past even suggested an exclusive Judean authorship for the text, because of the very mention of Judah and not exclusively the Northern Kingdom (4:15; 5:5, 10, 12-14; 6:4, 11).[11] It is often argued by liberals that only the “doom” elements of Hosea are authentic to the Prophet, but this has been changing in more modern critical circles.[12] Many liberals doubt the historical reliability of some parts of the book.[13]

Some very bad textual corruption of Hosea is present in the Hebrew Masoretic Text, with some considering it the worst among the Tanach books.[14] This makes ancient translations such as the Greek Septuagint to be useful in reconstructing various sentences.[15] Likewise to be considered, “With the possible exception of Job, the book of Hosea has the dubious distinction of having the most obscure passages of the entire Hebrew Bible” (Seow, ABD).[16] The Hebrew of Hosea is difficult in some places to render into English, where consultation of versions like the LXX is useful.[17] The difficulties of Hosea possibly originate because of Hosea being a text composed in the Northern Kingdom,[18] and “there is no other northern Israelite text tradition with which Hosea may be compared” (EDB).[19] Modern studies in Semitic languages such as Ugaritic are shedding more light on the difficulties of Hosea.[20]

Hosea probably prophesied for a period of about 38 years, given the kings listed (1:1),[21] between about 755-715 B.C.E.[22] Hosea lived during the tragic period of the fall of the Northern Kingdom (cf. 2 Kings 15:8-17:6) to Assyria.[23] It is imperative for anyone reading Hosea to consider the Syro-Ephraimite crisis of 735 B.C.E. and the politics of intrigue that led to the Northern Kingdom being defeated. Most of Hosea’s prophecies were fulfilled within thirty years of them being delivered. It can be hard at times to determine the relationship and correlations between Hosea’s and Amos’ prophecies,[24] even though Hosea is probably just realizing some more specifics of what Amos expected.

The first part of Hosea (chs. 1-3) narrates the family of Hosea and his marriage to the adulterous prostitute Gomer. Some Jewish[25] and Christian[26] interpreters over the centuries have felt that this is only to be taken as an allegory, that perhaps draws upon traditions of the Canaanite god Baal.[27] Many, however, still maintain that it is a literal story.[28] Those adopting a more figurative view have difficulty believing that God would tell His Prophet to marry a prostitute. Some adopt a middle position of believing that Gomer was inclined to prostitution prior to Hosea marrying, only to become engulfed by it after marriage.[29] All views are present among both conservative and liberal interpreters.

Hosea’s marriage is a point of tension in contemporary examinations of the book. “We cannot provide a definitive answer to this problem…these chapters do not intend to provide us with a biography of Hosea” (Dillard and Longman).[30] Whether one adopts a figurative or literal view of his marriage to Gomer, his marriage does draw important imagery from the Ancient Near East.[31] Hosea’s marriage mirrors the rebellion of Israel, and how God could have divorced Israel but did not (2:4, 9, 18). Israel was, however, to go through a period of exile and separation (7:16; 9:3, 6, 17; 11:5). Israel’s return is likened to a second Exodus (1:11; 2:14-23; 3:5; 11:10-11; 14:4-7). And, what is most difficult about these passages is to remember that references to “Israel” throughout the Book of Hosea are largely to the Northern Kingdom of Israel/Ephraim, although context ultimately determines whether the Northern Kingdom or the whole people of Israel, Northern and Southern Kingdoms, are in view.

The second part of Hosea (chs. 4-14) relates to Israel’s involvement in pagan Canaanite religion, and includes a series of direct prophetic oracles. Israel fails to acknowledge God (4:1, 6; 8:2-3; 13:4), yet God remains faithful because of His love for Israel (2:19; 4:1; 6:6; 10:12; 12:6). The disloyalty that Israel demonstrated toward God was considered tantamount to adultery against a husband (4:13-14; 5:4; 9:1). Conservative examiners of Hosea often give important weight to discoveries made at Ugarit, comparing Canaanite religion to the idolatrous practices of the Northern Kingdom Israelites, much of which included various sexual rites. Understanding how the Baal cult had permeated Israelite religion is very important for understanding Hosea’s message.[32]

Hosea demonstrates that God is faithful to His people, but that He will also punish sin. Restoration is offered to those who repent of sin (1:10-11; 2:14-23; 3:5; 11:10-11; 14:4-7), but individuals must make the conscious decision to repent. The Hebrew terms chesed or “lovingkindness,” ahavah or “love,” and rachamim or “mercy” feature throughout the text.[33] While Hosea was primarily a prophet to the Northern Kingdom, ultimately his message would concern all Israel.[34]

A major theme seen in Hosea is theodicity, which is the attempt to justify Divine righteousness in the midst of evil: “Perhaps…[a] most notable theological contribution is his insight into the personal and social dynamics of behavior—the relationship of action to will and disposition, the pervasive self-destruction worked by the apostate heart, the moral interdependence of all the members of a community, for good or ill, and the need for divine initiative to break the web of corporate self-enslavement” (IDBSup).[35] Modern Jewish theologians have had to consider the message of Hosea in light of the Holocaust, and many liberals today consider its message to be very important in view of terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.[36]

Hosea’s prophecies significantly affected the worldview of the Apostles,[37] as Hosea strongly stresses God’s redemption. We see the Apostles incorporating the ideas of Davidic kingship restored to the arrival of Yeshua the Messiah. Paul (Romans 9:25) and Peter (1 Peter 2:10) appropriate the theme of Hosea 1:10 and 2:23 about Israel being scattered and apply it to God’s mission assigned them among the nations. Paul refers to Hosea’s sarcastic call against the Canaanite God Mot or “Death” (13:14) and applies it to the resurrection of Yeshua and His defeat of death (1 Corinthians 15:55). Hosea 11:1 and the calling of Israel out of Egypt are applied to the brief period Yeshua resided in Egypt (Matthew 2:15).

The Book of Hosea plays an important role in the Jewish liturgical tradition. Hosea 14:2-10 is read during the afternoon service on the Ninth of Av, and on Shabbat Shuvah which occurs between Rosh HaShanah and Yom Kippur. Hosea 1:1-22 is read in conjunction with the Torah portion Bamidbar (Numbers 1:1-4:20), and Hosea 2:21-22 is read when Jewish men wrap tefillin or phylacteries for morning prayers.[38]

There is some limited Messianic handling of the Book of Hosea. Most of this is relegated to either specific Messianic prophecies applied by the Apostles to Yeshua, or other prophecies in regard to the restoration of all Israel. If there is any area that needs improvement among Messianics regarding Hosea, it would be in failing to examine Hosea as a whole, rather than just bits and pieces of the text.

Bibliography

Ball, E. “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:761-767.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Hosea,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1143-1165.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Hosea,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 353-362.

Emmerson, Grace I. “Hosea,” in ECB, pp 676-685.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Hosea,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 859-873.

____________. “Hosea,” in NIDB, pp 451-452.

Hindley, J.B. “Hosea,” in NBCR, pp 703-715.

Odell, Margaret S. “Hosea, Book of,” in EDB, pp 609-610.

Seow, C.L. “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:291-297.

Smart, J.D. “Hosea (man and book),” in IDB, 2:648-653.

Sweeney, Marvin A. “Hosea,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1253-1269.

Ward, J.M. “Hosea,” in IDBSup, pp 421-422.

Wood, Leon, J. “Hosea,” in EXP, 7:161-225.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Hosea

[1] “Hosea came first: ‘God spoke first to Hosea’ (Hos. 1:2). But did he speak first of all with Hosea? And were there not any number of prophets from Moses to Hosea? And said R. Yohanan, ‘He was the first of the group of four prophets who prophesied at that time: Hosea, Isaiah, Amos, and Micah.’ So should not Hosea come first? Well, since his prophesies are written down along with those of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, and since Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi are designated as the conclusion of prophecy, he is reckoned along with them. So why not write out his prophecy on its own and put it first? Well, his scroll is so small that if copied on its own it might get lost” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[2] J.B. Hindley, “Hosea,” in NBCR, 703.

[3] R.K. Harrison, “Hosea,” in NIDB, 451.

[4] Ibid., pp 451-452.

[5] Ibid., 452.

[6] C.L. Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:292.

[7] E. Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:766.

[8] Dillard and Longman, 355.

[9] J.D. Smart, “Hosea (man and book),” in IDB, 3:648.

[10] Smart, “Hosea (man and book),” in IDB, 2:651; Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:766; Margaret S. Odell, “Hosea, Book of,” in EDB, 609.

[11] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp  869-870; Leon, J. Wood, “Hosea,” in EXP, 7:161-163.

[12] Dillard and Longman, 355.

[13] Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:293-294.

[14] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 872-873; Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:765-766.

[15] Smart, “Hosea (man and book),” in IDB, 2:651.

[16] Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:292.

[17] Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:766.

[18] Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:292.

[19] Odell, “Hosea, Book of,” in EDB, 609.

[20] Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:292.

[21] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 860; Hindley, in NBCR, 703.

[22] Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:762; Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:292.

[23] Wood, im EXP, 7:161-162; Dillard and Longman, pp 355-356.

[24] Smart, “Hosea (man and book),” in IDB, 2:648.

[25] Smart, “Hosea (man and book),” in IDB, 2:649; Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:763; Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:292.

[26] Smart, “Hosea (man and book),” in IDB, 2:650-651; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 866-867; Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:763; Wood, in EXP, 7:164.

[27] Marvin A. Sweeney, New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1253.

[28] Hindley, in NBCR, 703-704; Wood, in EXP, 7:164-165.

[29] Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:763.

[30] Dillard and Longman, 357; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 863-865.

[31] Sweeney, in Jewish Study Bible, 1143.

[32] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 870-871; J.M. Ward, “Hosea,” in IDBSup, 422; Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:762; Seow, “Hosea, Book of,” in ABD, 3:294-295.

[33] Hindley, in NBCR, 703.

[34] Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:766.

[35] Ward, “Hosea,” in IDBSup, 422.

[36] Sweeney, in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1254.

[37] Ball, “Hosea,” in ISBE, 2:766-767; Dillard and Longman, 362.

[38] Sweeney, in Jewish Study Bible, 1143.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON HOSEA:

1. Describe the significance of Hosea’s and Gomer’s marriage. How does this compare to the judgments that God will declare on His people throughout Hosea’s prophecy?

2. Of all the sins listed against Israel in Hosea, which ones do you consider to be the most severe?

3. Having read through Hosea, how do we balance Hosea’s words directed specifically toward the Northern Kingdom, versus Israel as a whole? How much of Hosea’s prophecy really does need to be considered in light of its ancient context?

4. How do you balance the negative and positive words seen in Hosea’s prophecy?

5. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Hosea seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON HOSEA’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Hosea:

BOOK OF JOEL

Approximate date: 800s-600s B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 600s-400s B.C.E. (some conservative moderate; Left)

Time period: impending invasion of the Land of Israel by foreign enemies

Author(s): Joel and/or a close associate (Right, conservative-moderate); Joel, writers and editors (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): Judah and Jerusalem (Right, some conservative-moderate); somewhere in the Land of Israel (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites

People:

Joel (son of Pethuel)

Places:

(Mount) Zion, Jerusalem, Judah, Valley of Jehoshaphat

Places mentioned:

Garden of Eden, Tyre, Sidon, Philistia, Greeks, Sabeans, Egypt, Edom

Key Themes:

Joel describes an invasion of locusts to punish sinners who are complacent / Joel calls the priests to solemn repentance / Joel depicts God’s armies as locusts, overcoming His enemies on the Day of the LORD / Joel calls the people to turn their hearts to the Lord / Joel says that by turning to the Lord, He will restore their prosperity / the Day of the LORD is described as a time when His Spirit is greatly poured out / the nations will be judged for scattering His people / Judah and Jerusalem will be vindicated from the injustice performed on them

Key Scriptures: Joel 1:13-15; 2:1-2, 11-13, 28-32; 3:12-15 / The day of the locusts (1:1-2:7); The Day of the Lord (2:28-3:21)

Theological Summary: The name Joel, or Yo’el means “the LORD is God.” Little is known of Joel the man,[1] as virtually nothing is stated in the text surrounding his background. There is even confusion about the name of his father, Pethuel (1:1), rendered in the LXX as Bethuel (1:1). What we do know about the Prophet Joel is that he is concerned about Judah and Jerusalem (2:32; 3:1, 6, 8, 16-20), and it is most likely that he was from the Southern Kingdom. Joel has an innate knowledge of the Temple and its services, which has led some to conclude that he was somehow involved with the priesthood.[2] The Book of Joel can be a confusing text, even though it includes standard prophetic elements of the need for repentance, the judgment of God, and promised restoration.

There is difficulty with dating the Book of Joel because no contemporary events are mentioned,[3] and it is likely to remain the most controversial issue regarding its composition.[4] While Joel is placed second among the Twelve Prophets in the Jewish order of the Tanach, the Septuagint places it fourth after Micah, indicating some uncertainty as to when Joel prophesied.[5]

Among conservatives, a broad dating of the Seventh-Fifth Centuries B.C.E. is often assumed. Some place Joel’s prophetic ministry during the reign of King Uzziah,[6] with some even placing him earlier in the Ninth Century. Proposals across the spectrum for Joel’s composition often range over a 500 year period.[7]

Those leaning toward an earlier date for Joel note the mention of Ancient Israel’s more ancient enemies of the Philistines and the Phoenicians (3:4), and Egypt and Edom (3:19), when compared to the later enemies of Assyria and Babylon. Likewise, it is believed that Amos may have been acquainted with Joel’s prophecies (3:16; cf. Amos 1:1; 3:18). Conservatives often favor an earlier dating for Joel,[8] noting “there is no single element of the thought of Joel that is incompatible with a pre-exilic date for the prophecy” (Harrison).[9] Regardless of where Joel specifically falls within this paradigm, it should not affect our overall understanding of the text.

Liberals examining the Book of Joel feel that he is interpreting contemporary events of his time, using unique symbology,[10] perhaps borrowing from other prophets. Many Jewish and Christian interpreters over the centuries have followed a similar style.[11] Liberals tend to favor a post-exilic, Fifth Century or later composition for Joel, dating Joel at the earliest to the time of the Persians.[12] They make note of the reference to the Greeks (3:6), and assume that Ancient Israel did not have contact with them prior to the Fifth-Fourth Centuries B.C.E.[13] In the past, liberals have doubted the authenticity of any of Joel’s prophecies.[14] Surprisingly, though, a fair number today do hold to some kind of unified authorship/composition for Joel, and do not advocate that multiple sources were used for the text,[15] although some still do feel that a few of Joel’s visions were added later.[16]

Some similarities in language are present with the other Prophets, which causes some to believe that Joel is a later text and borrowed from Prophets such as Haggai, Zechariah, or Malachi.[17] However, the argument could equally be made that these Prophets borrowed from Joel. The Hebrew MT of Joel is in relatively good condition, with textual witnesses present among the DSS at Qumran.[18] The major difference between the MT and LXX textual witnesses is the latter’s division of Joel into three, rather than four chapters.[19] Christian Bibles today divide Joel into three chapters, whereas Jewish Bibles divide it into four.

The Prophet Joel emphasizes a series of physical plagues that will herald “the day of the LORD” (2:31). The first part of this judgment is seen in a series of natural catastrophes (1:1-2:27), with the second part seen with God’s judgment upon foreign peoples (2:28-3:21). Joel calls on Judah to turn to God in repentance. An invading army will come (2:1-10) culminating in a final battle (ch. 3). God’s Spirit will be poured out (2:28). After this judgment is concluded, a period of restoration will ensue.[20]

The only specific reference to the Prophet Joel outside of the Book of Joel is in the Book of Acts (Acts 2:16-17). Luke interprets the events of Shavuot/Pentecost as involving some kind of fulfillment of Joel’s prophecies.[21] Joel’s message of God’s salvation helped fuel the expanse of the gospel message during the First Century.[22]

The Book of Joel also has some important liturgical properties.[23] In some Jewish traditions (Ashkenazi, Conservative) the Book of Joel is considered on Shabbat Shuvah, or the Sabbath between Rosh HaShanah and Yom Kippur during the Ten Days of Awe.[24]

As things currently stand, there is not a great deal of Messianic engagement with the Book of Joel, aside from a few isolated verses here or there.

Bibliography

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Joel,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1166-1175.

Crenshaw, James L. “Joel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1271-1278.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Joel,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 363-371.

Gelston, Anthony. “Joel,” in ECB, pp 686-689.

Graybill, John G. “Joel, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 530-531.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Joel,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 874-882.

Hiebert, Theodore. “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:873-880.

Neil, W. “Joel, Book of,” in IDB, 2:929-929.

Patterson, Richard D. “Joel,” in EXP, 7:229-266.

Simkins, Ronald A. “Joel, Book of,” in EDB, pp 720-721.

Williamson, H.G.M. “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1076-1080.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Joel

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 874; Richard D. Patterson, “Joel,” in EXP, 7:230; Dillard and Longman, 365; Anthony Gelston, “Joel,” in ECB, 686.

[2] H.G.M. Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1076; Theodore Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:878.

[3] Ehud ben Zvi, “Joel,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1166.

[4] Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1077; Patterson, in EXP, 7:231-233; Dillard and Longman, pp 365-367.

[5] Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:879; Gelston, in ECB, 686.

[6] Patterson, in EXP, 7:229-230.

[7] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 876-877; Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1078; John G. Graybill, “Joel, Book of,” in NIDB, 530; Ronald A. Simkins, “Joel, Book of,” in EDB, 720.

[8] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 877.

[9] Ibid., 878.

[10] W. Neil, “Joel, Book of,” in IDB, 2:927; Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1077; Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:878-879; James L. Crenshaw, “Joel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1271.

[11] Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1079.

[12] Neil, “Joel, Book of,” in IDB, 2:928; ben Zvi, in Jewish Study Bible, 1166.

[13] Neil, “Joel, Book of,” in IDB, 2:926.

[14] Patterson, in EXP, 7:230.

[15] Neil, “Joel, Book of,” in IDB, 2:927; Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1079; Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:873-874.

[16] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 875; Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:879.

[17] Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:879.

[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 881; Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:879.

[19] Patterson, in EXP, 7:235.

[20] Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1076-1077; Hiebert, “Joel, Book of,” in ABD, 3:876-878; Ronald A. Simkins, “Joel, Book of,” in EDB, 720.

[21] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 881; Graybill, “Joel, Book of,” in NIDB, 531.

[22] Williamson, “Joel,” in ISBE, 2:1080; Dillard and Longman, pp 370-371.

[23] Dillard and Longman, 368.

[24] ben Zvi, in Jewish Study Bible, 1167.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON JOEL:

1. How significant do you think it is for Joel to first describe swarms used to judge God’s people (1:6), only later to use the same symbology to describe His own army (2:11)?

2. How do Yeshua (2:10; cf. Matthew 24:29) and Peter (2:28-32; cf. Acts 2:17-21) both appropriate and apply themes of the Day of the LORD as detailed by Joel?

3. What is the overarching promise delivered by God to Judah seen in the Book of Joel?

4. Do you believe today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Joel seriously?

REFLECTION ON JOEL’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Joel:

BOOK OF AMOS

Approximate date: 760-750 B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate); 587-539 B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: judgment upon Northern Kingdom and Southern Kingdom during a time of intense prosperity and opulence

Author: Amos and/or a close associate (Right, conservative-moderate); Amos and anonymous others (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): Bethel (Right, conservative-moderate); somewhere in the Land of Israel (Left)

Target audience and location: primarily Northern Kingdom Israelites, but also Southern Kingdom Israelites

People:

Amos, Amaziah, Jeroboam II

People mentioned:

Israel (primarily the Northern Kingdom), Uzziah, Jeroboam (son of Jehoash), House of Hazael (king of Damascus), Aram(eans), king of Ashdod, Philistines, king of Ammon (or, Molech),[1] king of Edom, Amorites, Nazirites (from Israel), Joseph (Northern Kingdom), David, Jacob (all Israel), Cushites

Places:

Tekoa, Judah (Southern Kingdom), Israel (Northern Kingdom), Jerusalem, Samaria, Bethel, Bashan, Gilgal, Beersheba

Places mentioned:

Damascus, Gilead, fortresses of Ben-Hadad (son of Hazael), Valley of Aven, Beth Eden, Kir, Gaza, Edom, Ashkelon, Ekron, Tyre, Teman, Bozrah, Ammon, Gilead, Rabbah, Moab, Kerioth, Egypt, Ashdod, Harmon, Sodom, Gomorrah, Gath, Philistia, Lo Debar, Karnaim, Lebo Hamath, Arabah, Nile, Carmel, Caphtor

Key Themes and Events:

Amos, a shepherd from Tekoa, receives visions from God / God declares judgment against Israel’s neighbors (Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, Moab) / God declares judgment against the Southern Kingdom of Judah / God declares judgment against the Northern Kingdom of Israel / God summons testimony against all Israel, both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms, to validate His judgment against them / God details how the people of Israel have failed to turn to Him, despite their lack of food and rain, and the agricultural pestilence / God issues another plea for Israel (Northern Kingdom) to turn back to Him / God decrees that great anguish will befall the Northern Kingdom / Amos describes the Day of the LORD / God decrees judgment upon the rich of both Zion and Samaria / God specifically says that the House of Israel will be judged by an external nation / Amaziah reports to Jeroboam about Amos’ prophecies / Amos rebukes Amaziah / God declares a thorough judgment upon the Northern Kingdom, and the complete downfall of it as an independent state / God says some of Israel will survive, being shaken into the nations / David’s tabernacle (or tent) is promised to be restored

Key Scriptures: Amos 2:6-8; 3:2-3, 7; 4:1-3; 5:7-15, 18, 24; 6:3-8; 7:14-17; 8:7-9; 9:7-13 / Announcement of judgment (1:1-2:16); Reasons for judgment (3:1-6:14); Visions of judgment (7:1-9:15)

Theological Summary: Even though Amos (Heb. Amos) is listed in the Hebrew book order as the third of the Twelve Prophets, he was likely the first chronologically. Amos was from Tekoa (1:1), a small town just south of Bethlehem. He was not from a priestly family, but instead earned his living from the flock and a sycamore fig-grove (1:1; 7:14-15). It is unknown whether he was the owner or just a worker,[2] and today some scholarship leans toward Amos being some kind of a civil servant involved in their maintenance.[3] Regardless of which he was, he certainly witnessed the hardships of many such workers.

Amos was certainly not an ignorant peasant, given his skilled words that indicate he was well informed of the issues of his day,[4] notably the great prosperity of both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms.[5] Amos probably did the bulk of his prophesying in Bethel (7:10-13; cf. 1 Kings 12:28-30), at the location of one of the Northern Kingdom’s primary worship centers. Consequently, most of Amos’ prophecies concern the Northern Kingdom, although there are warnings issued to the Southern Kingdom.

Questions are asked as to whether or not Amos was a writing poet, or whether his prophecies were later collected and written down by those who followed his ministry. Conservative theologians generally favor Amos writing the text,[6] or some of his close followers composing the text.[7] Amos’ initial composition is often dated to some time in the Eighth Century B.C.E., perhaps around 760.[8] Perhaps the only parts of Amos that were likely appended by someone other than himself are the superscription (1:1) and biographical section (7:10-17), probably by his disciples.

Liberal theologians have tended to favor the Book of Amos being some kind of anthology of prophetic oracles, some of which are authentic to Amos, but not all. They have frequently argued that the text of Amos must post-date the Babylonian exile, and also commonly claim that the oracles delivered against the Southern Kingdom of Judah (9:11-12) must have been added at a later date, as it implies the fall of the monarchy—which liberals assert has already occurred.[9]

Many liberals have also doubted whether Amos even considered himself a prophet, on the basis of his words “I am not a prophet, nor am I the son of a prophet; for I am a herdsman and a grower of sycamore figs” (7:14). It should be noted, though, that this may be a response to Amos being a prophet outside of the “mainline” prophetic guild of his time,[10] which often incurred monies for its prophesying. Some also suggest that “I am not a prophet” is just a common response of Amos to God’s call upon him.[11]

Fortunately, it does appear that more critical scholars, on the basis of some linguistic and historical grounds, are beginning to lean more toward Amos’ authenticity.[12]

The authorized Hebrew text of Amos probably emerged some time during the Babylonian exile, or the immediate post-exilic period. The current MT is in fairly good condition, with few minor variants when compared to the Greek LXX.[13]

Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah of Judah (792-740 B.C.E.) and Jeroboam II of Israel (793-753 B.C.E.),[14] and his words affect both the Northern Kingdom and its subsequent judgment via Assyria, as well as the Southern Kingdom. Amos addresses the prosperity of both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms, as well as their religious disobedience. Likewise, Amos delivers rebukes against eight different external powers. The Book of Amos can be largely divided into three sections: (1) oracles against the nations (chs. 1-2), (2) a series of judgments against Israel (chs. 3-6), and (3) a group of visions culminating in ultimate salvation (chs. 7-9).[15] In Amos, one sees that God is sovereign over the affairs of the universe.[16]

The Book of Amos contains a very strong message of social justice (5:24).[17] While there are similarities between the message of Amos when compared to Hosea, Amos is more concerned about the social conditions inflicted upon the poor of the Northern Kingdom,[18] listing them as a major reason for the coming judgment. God’s Torah is upheld as a standard of proper conduct for His people. Those who were rich and opulent (3:15), having earned their luxurious wares through cheating and extorting the poor, were to be judged severely by God.[19]

The answer to the Northern Kingdom’s severe sin would be swift, national destruction (4:6-11). Throughout Amos, we see that God will use outside powers to judge Israel (6:14), being the King of the whole world (4:13; 5:8; 9:5-6). Amos also criticized “prophets” who only spoke what the people hearing them wanted to hear (cf. 7:14-15).

Throughout the Book of Amos, one should see that the responsibility of Israel is intensified because they have had God’s Law and should have known better (3:2),[20] especially compared to other nations who did not have the Torah. Amos does have a concern for the religious life of the people, every bit as much as he does their conduct regarding the oppressed.[21] In spite of the judgment that was coming, there would be a remnant that could repent (5:15), and in due time the whole House of Israel would be restored as it was during the life of David (9:11-15).

Amos emphasizes what many would consider the “weightier matters” of the Torah, particularly the ethics of Deuteronomy.[22] The themes of Amos are undoubtedly seen throughout the Apostolic Scriptures, and form a considerable part of the mission of the Apostles. There is no reason to discriminate between rich and poor in the assembly (1 Corinthians 11:22; James 2:1-10). The poor need care (James 1:27; 5:1-6). Luke’s Gospel itself notices the plight of the destitute.[23] Amos is quoted by Paul where the evil of Ancient Israel is to be considered (5:15; cf. Romans 12:9). And, the most significant quotation of Amos (9:11-12, LXX) appears in Acts 15:16-18 when James places the expanse of the gospel among the nations as a major part of the restoration of all Israel.[24]

The Book of Amos is an extremely important text today for both Jewish and Christian social activists, especially as it concerns the destitute and those who cannot help themselves (2:6-7; 5:10-12; 6:3-7, 12; 8:4-6). Of course, these are some of the major concerns of the Torah that Amos insisted his audience remember. Interestingly enough, the Labor movement in the early State of Israel took many of the themes of Amos very seriously.[25] Likewise, the current trend of Christian “liberation theology” in Latin America and other parts of the third world appropriates a great deal of Amos.

There is presently not a great deal of Messianic examination regarding Amos, except for some of the promises relating to Israel’s restoration. The Book of Amos has a difficult social message for today’s Messianic community, much of which tends to isolate itself from the world at large, rather than being involved in the welfare of the larger community (or global community). Amos asks us some questions that on the whole, we are largely unprepared to answer today.

Bibliography

Barton, John. “Amos,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1279-1291.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Amos,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1176-1192.

Carroll R., M. Daniel. “Amos,” in ECB, pp 690-695.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Amos,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 373-384.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Amos,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 883-897.

____________. “Amos,” in NIDB, pp 43-44.

Jones, Barry A. “Amos, Book of,” in EDB, pp 56-57.

McComiskey, Thomas Edward. “Amos,” in EXP, 7:269-331.

Motyer, J.A. “Amos,” in NBCR, pp 726-741.

Robertson, J., and C. Amerding. “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:114-117.

Smart, J.D. “Amos,” in IDB, 1:116-121.

Ward, J.M. “Amos,” in IDBSup, pp 21-23.

Willoughby, Bruce E. “Amos, Book of,” in ABD, 1:203-212.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Amos

[1] Heb. mal’kam.

[2] J. Robertson and C. Amerding, “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:114.

[3] Bruce E. Willoughby, “Amos, Book of,” in ABD, 1:203-204; Dillard and Longman, 376.

[4] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 886-887.

[5] J.D. Smart “Amos,” in IDB, 1:117; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 884-885; R.K. Harrison, “Amos,” in NIDB, 43; Robertson and Amerding, “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:114-115; Willoughby, “Amos, Book of,” in ABD, 1:205-206.

[6] Thomas Edward McComiskey, “Amos,” in EXP, 7:269.

[7] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 890.

[8] J.A. Motyer, “Amos,” in NBCR, 726; Robertson and Amerding, “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:115; McComiskey, “Amos,” in EXP, 7:275.

[9] Smart “Amos,” in IDB, 1:118.

[10] Ibid., 1:116.

[11] Willoughby, “Amos, Book of,” in ABD, 1:204; Dillard and Longman, 377.

[12] M. Daniel Carroll R., “Amos,” in ECB, 690.

[13] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 897; Willoughby, “Amos, Book of,” in ABD, 1:211.

[14] Smart “Amos,” in IDB, 1:118; McComiskey, “Amos,” in EXP, 7:269-270; Dillard and Longman, 375.

[15] Cf. Dillard and Longman, 379; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 887-890.

[16] Dillard and Longman, 382.

[17] Smart “Amos,” in IDB, 1:120-121; Motyer, “Amos,” in NBCR, 727; Robertson and Amerding, “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:116; Willoughby, “Amos, Book of,” in ABD, 1:206; Dillard and Longman, pp 382-383.

[18] Harrison, “Amos,” in NIDB, 43.

[19] Motyer, “Amos,” in NBCR, 726.

[20] Robertson and Amerding, “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:114.

[21] Smart “Amos,” in IDB, 1:120; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 886; J.M. Ward, “Amos,” in IDBSup, 22; Robertson and Amerding, “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:117.

[22] Robertson and Amerding, “Amos,” in ISBE, 1:117.

[23] Dillard and Longman, 384.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Ehud ben Zvi, “Amos,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1176.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON AMOS:

1. How might our understanding of God’s judgment be enhanced, if we took a careful look at the historical figures and places involved in Amos’ prophecies?

2. What are some of the reasons declared by Amos as to why God must judge all of Israel (both kingdoms)? What reason do you find to be most severe?

3. Why is more of Amos’ prophecy directed toward the Northern Kingdom, versus the Southern Kingdom?

4. What do we learn about the concept of “the Day of the LORD” (5:18) from Amos’ prophecy?

5. How does James the Just apply Amos’ word about Israel being restored (9:11-12, LXX) to the salvation of the nations in Acts 15:16-18?

6. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Amos seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON AMOS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Amos:

BOOK OF OBADIAH

Approximate date: 853-841 B.C.E. (some Right); 586-553 B.C.E. (some Right, some conservative-moderate); 400s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Time period: fall of Edom following the fall of Judah

Author: Obadiah and/or a close associate (Right, conservative-moderate); Obadiah and anonymous others (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in the Land of Israel (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites, Edomites

People:

Obadiah, Judah (Southern Kingdom), Joseph (Northern Kingdom)

People mentioned:

Esau (people of Edom), Jacob (nation of Israel), Philistines

Places:

Edom, Teman, Jerusalem, Mount Zion, Negev, fields of Ephraim and Samaria, Benjamin, Gilead, Canaan, Zarephath, Sepharad

Key Themes and Events:

God declares judgment against Edom / God decrees that deliverance will be found in Zion / Israel will be restored to its former glory

Key Scriptures: Obadiah 15-17 / Edom’s destruction (1-16); Israel’s restoration (17-21)

Theological Summary: The Book of Obadiah is the shortest text in the Hebrew Tanach. The name of the Prophet Obadiah (Heb. Ovadyah) means “servant of the LORD.” While a common name in Ancient Israel, nothing is stated in the text concerning Obadiah’s upbringing or background. Later Jewish tradition associates the Prophet Obadiah with the Obadiah of 1 Kings 18, who controlled the household of prophets against Jezebel (b.Sanhedrin 39b),[1] although most today discount this as speculation. Due to the lack of explicit biographical data, it is difficult for interpreters to not only pinpoint a time of Obadiah’s prophesying, but also the specific location where he prophesied. We do, however, know that the purpose for Obadiah’s prophecies was to make light of the conflict between Israel and Edom,[2] and Edom’s rejoicing over Judah’s destruction.

The most serious debate as it concerns the Book of Obadiah among interpreters relates to when Obadiah prophesied.[3] It is quite valid to point out that one “runs the risk of constructing history largely out of prophetic oracles or poetry” (ABD),[4] and so any interpretation of Obadiah must be guarded by remembering that one’s dating of the text is speculative. The two proposals that are widely made among interpreters is that Obadiah prophesied during (1) the rebellion against Judah during the reign of Jehoram (853-841 B.C.E.; cf. 2 Kings 8:20-22; 2 Chronicles 21:8-15), or during (2) the Babylonian attacks on Jerusalem (605-586 B.C.E.).

Previous conservatives tended to favor a dating of Obadiah during the Edomite rebellion against Jehoram,[5] but conservatives today largely recognize the calamity that Obadiah describes as being the sacking of Jerusalem by the Babylonians.[6] Indeed, the widest amount of discussion concerning Obadiah often relates to the connection of Obadiah 1-6 and Jeremiah 49:9-10, 14-16, and how these sets of verses are related.[7] Some suggest that one borrows from the other, while others argue that since the doom of Edom is a theme of many of the Prophets (cf. Isaiah 34:5; 63:1-6; Ezekiel 25:12-17; 35; Amos 1:11-12; Malachi 1:2-4), both are relying on some kind of common knowledge. It is also argued among interpreters that Obadiah may have been one of those who remained in Jerusalem after the city’s fall. A few go even further and propose that Obadiah is post-exilic, composed around 450 B.C.E.[8]

Some liberal theologians adhere for a unity of Obadiah’s composition, while others argue that the text is an expanded edition of an original source, or a series of several oracles strung together.[9] Liberals tend to argue for a post-exilic composition of Obadiah.[10]

The Hebrew MT of Obadiah is generally in good condition,[11] and the Greek LXX seldom has to be consulted to correct potential scribal error.

A major theme seen in Obadiah is that Edom has rejoiced over Judah’s devastation at the hands of foreign powers (vs. 14-15). Edom will be subjected to God’s punishment as a result of its gloating.[12] Edom was an ancient adversary of Israel, and as such will be judged by the Lord. Edom’s judgment is more severe, though, because the Edomites were ethnically related to the Israelites (Genesis 25:23; Malachi 1:3; Romans 9:13), and not a total outside party like the Babylonians (cf. Psalm 137:7; Lamentations 4:21-22).

Obadiah presents the tensions between Israel and Edom (Genesis 36; Deuteronomy 2), and the conflict between the two peoples that had started via the twin brothers Esau and Jacob.[13] Edom was rejected by God, whereas Jacob was accepted. Paul uses this analogy in Romans 9:13 to describe the First Century condition of Israel,[14] and the ancient comparisons of Israel and Edom have caused many to wonder whether Paul is speaking of individual election (as commonly interpreted) or corporate election. The Book of Obadiah does contain a warning of what will happen when one fights against God’s people, or rejoices when they are judged. God’s judgment on the nations indicates his universal control of the world.[15]

In the Jewish theological tradition, Obadiah was commonly read to represent God’s disdain for Rome (“Edom”), and then later Christendom.[16] In the Sephardic and Yemenite communities, the entire Book of Obadiah is read as the Haftarah for V’yishlach (Genesis 32:4-36:4).

Currently, there has been no distinct Messianic handling whatsoever with the Book of Obadiah. This is likely due to the text’s smallness, rather than deliberate omission. Obadiah does ask the Messianic interpreter questions about Judah and Edom as corporate entities, which could alter some perceptions of Romans 9 and God’s “election” that will undeniably have to be considered in future theological studies.

Bibliography

Ackroyd, Peter R. “Obadiah, Book of,” in ABD, 5:2-4.

Amerding, Carl E. “Obadiah,” in EXP, 7:335-357.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Obadiah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1193-1197.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Obadiah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 385-390.

Fowler, Arthur B. “Obadiah, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 715-716.

Gelston, Anthony. “Obadiah,” in ECB, pp 696-698.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Obadiah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 898-903.

Muilenburg, J. “Obadiah, Book of,” in IDB, 3:578-579.

Pagán, Samuel. “Obadiah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1293-1295.

Raabe, Paul R. “Obadiah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 979-981.

Robinson, D.W.B. “Obadiah,” in NBCR, pp 742-745.

Watts, J.D.W. “Obadiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:574-576.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Obadiah

[1] “Said R. Isaac, ‘On what account did Obadiah have the merit of receiving prophecy? Because he hid a hundred prophets in a cave. For it is said, “For it was so when Jezebel cut off the prophets of the Lord that Obadiah took a hundred prophets and hid them, fifty to a cave” (1Ki. 18: 4)’” (b. Sanhedrin 39b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 898; Peter R. Ackroyd, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ABD, 5:2.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 898-899; Carl E. Amerding, “Obadiah,” in EXP, 7:335.

[3] Dillard and Longman, pp 386-387.

[4] Ackroyd, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ABD, 5:4.

[5] Arthur B. Fowler, “Obadiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 715.

[6] D.W.B. Robinson, “Obadiah,” in NBCR, 742; J.D.W. Watts, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:574; Carl E. Amerding, “Obadiah,” in EXP, 7:337.

[7] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 901; Watts, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:575; Ackroyd, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ABD, 5:3; Anthony Gelston, “Obadiah,” in EDB, 979.

[8] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 902.

[9] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 899-900; Watts, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:574; Ackroyd, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ABD, 5:3.

[10] J. Muilenburg, “Obadiah, Book of,” in IDB, 3:579.

[11] Muilenburg, “Obadiah, Book of,” in IDB, 3:579; Harrison, Introduction to Old Testament, 903; Paul R. Raabe, “Obadiah, Book of,” in EDB, 979.

[12] Muilenburg, “Obadiah, Book of,” in IDB, 3:578.

[13] Gelston, in ECB, 696.

[14] Dillard and Longman, 390.

[15] Watts, “Obadiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:575.

[16] Ehud ben Zvi, “Obadiah,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1193.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON OBADIAH:

1. Why do you think God’s message of judgment upon Edom is so pronounced and thorough?

2. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Obadiah seriously?

REFLECTION ON OBADIAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Obadiah:

BOOK OF JONAH

Approximate date: 850-750 B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 400s-200s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Time period: God’s impending judgment upon Nineveh

Author(s): Jonah (Right, some conservative-moderate); Jonah and/or members of the prophetic school (some conservative moderate); anonymous (some conservative moderate, Left)

Location of author: somewhere in the Land of Israel (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Northern Kingdom Israelites, people of Nineveh

People:

Jonah (son of Ammitai)

Places:

Nineveh, Tarshish, Joppa

Key Themes:

the Lord calls Jonah to go preach against Nineveh / Jonah instead boards a ship bound for Tarshish, in the opposite direction / the ship is tossed about in a storm / the sailors recall how Jonah said that he was running away from his god / Jonah is thrown overboard, causing the storm to stop / Jonah is swallowed by a large “fish” / Jonah prays to the Lord and repents of his errors while inside the sea creature / Jonah obeys the Lord and travels to Nineveh / the people of Nineveh repent of their sinful ways / Jonah expresses his anger over the Ninevites’ repentance / God expresses how important the people of Nineveh are to Him

Key Scriptures: Jonah 1:7-10; 2:1-3, 7-9; 3:10; 4:11 / Jonah forsakes his mission (1:1-2:10); Jonah fulfills his mission (3:1-4:11)

Theological Summary: The Book of Jonah is named for its principal character. Jonah (Heb. Yonah) was the son of Ammitai (1:1) from Gath-Hepher in Zebulun (2 Kings 14:25). There are some similarities between the accounts of Elijah and Elisha, compared to Jonah, leading many to conclude that they were all part of the same prophetic school. Undeniably, Jonah is one of the most controversial texts in the Tanach. We see that Jonah is called out by God to proclaim a message of repentance to the people of Nineveh (1:1), but instead Jonah boards a ship bound for Tarshish (1:3) at the opposite end of the Mediterranean.[1] The story is all too familiar. A storm ravishes the ship (1:4), and Jonah is swallowed by a great fish (1:17). He remains in the innards of the creature for three days and prayed in repentance to God (2:1-9). God must intervene to see that the Prophet accomplishes his assigned mission.

The authorship of Jonah in the text itself is strictly anonymous, but tradition ascribes it to the Prophet Jonah. Conservatives widely accept that Jonah was indeed an Israelite prophet who was called to minister outside of his own people and call the people of Nineveh to repentance. It is widely acknowledged that the Jonah of this book is the same Jonah referenced in 2 Kings 14:25. Conservatives often agree that Jonah was composed sometime in the Eighth Century B.C.E., most likely before the fall of the Northern Kingdom.[2] Jonah in total could have been written by Jonah himself, or he could have simply been the originator of the bulk of its material. This material could then have been compiled and expanded by his school of prophets, or a later author/compiler.[3] The text is somewhat autobiographical, and has been interpreted from many different vantage points.[4]

It is notable that a few conservatives sit on the side of Jonah not being the actual account of a real prophet,[5] but instead see Jonah as being an ahistorical story designed to teach a critical lesson. This does not include the author.

Liberals commonly assign a post-exilic date to the Book of Jonah, largely because Jonah is depicted as an Israelite prophet who proclaims repentance to the Ninevites. It is asserted that this can only reflect a post-exilic ideology of the Jews searching for clarity in the midst of losing their nation. Liberals largely espouse that Jonah must have been written after the destruction of Nineveh in 612 B.C.E., usually in the 400s or 300s B.C.E.[6] In some cases, linguistic evidence of Aramaisms in the Hebrew text is offered for a later date,[7] but in actuality this is inconclusive,[8] given the strong presence of Aramaic in the Galilee region in the Eighth-Seventh Centuries B.C.E.[9]

Most significantly, liberals will often consider Jonah to be some kind of “Biblical fiction” or “novella, distinguished by mythical and folkloric motifs” (IDBSup),[10] but not the genuine story of an Israelite prophet called to go to Nineveh. Most frequently, this idea is based on the fact that the Book of Jonah is presented as narrative, and should instead be equated as no different than a Scriptural version of “Jack and the Beanstalk” (IDB).[11] A most frequent suggestion is that Jonah is just a parable, or a story attempting to probe the important issues of the post-exilic Jewish community.[12] Some liberals go further and would speculate that Jonah represents an early form of what would develop into midrash.[13]

In response to liberals’ logic, conservatives often point out that if Jonah is a post-exilic text compiled sometime in the Persian era, then it was written during a time when Nineveh was largely forgotten. Perhaps all that both liberals and conservatives can agree upon is that Jonah “is one of the Bible’s literary gems” (New Interpreter’s Study Bible).[14] More liberal trends today tend to focus on the message of Jonah itself, when compared to the historical debates surrounding it.[15]

The current state of the Hebrew Masoretic Text of Jonah is very good, and there is no indication that its status among the Twelve Prophets was ever disputed.[16] Sirach 49:10[17] in the Apocrypha seems to indicate that its author recognized Jonah as one of the Twelve Prophets.[18]

The biggest concern regarding the Book of Jonah among any interpreter is establishing whether or not the text is truly historical, or is based more on legend than fact.[19] Was Jonah truly swallowed by some kind of “fish”? There are significant critiques from scientists regarding whether this is even possible.[20] Harrison notes that there are accounts of modern people being swallowed by whales and surviving,[21] indicating that it is certainly possible and that Jonah could be representing an actual event that happened.

Likewise, did all of the city of Nineveh repent when they heard Jonah’s message? Many conservatives consider the reference to Nineveh in the Book of Jonah as actually referring to the district where the city was located, not just the city, and that the “three days’ journey” (4:11) is more a reference to the administration area or province than the actual city.[22]

Liberals assert that the Book of Jonah is not to be interpreted entirely seriously, and that certain accounts are literary features of the author’s imagination. Critical questions considered include: Did Jonah as a prophet truly reject the will of God? Did Nineveh as a city truly turn in repentance from its evil? Many of the liberal critiques of Jonah are notably based in doubting miracles and supernatural occurrences.

If one accepts that Jonah represents the account of a real, historical prophet, than the historical backdrop is very important to consider for right interpretation. Jonah likely prophesied as the Northern Kingdom of Israel reestablished its old borders, ending a series of conflicts with Damascus. Damascus had once been able to wield some influence on the political affairs of the Northern Kingdom, but this had been stopped when Assyria defeated Damascus (2 Kings 14:26-27). Assyria still remained, however, a threat to the Northern Kingdom. The Prophets were speaking poignantly to these events. Elisha spoke of future victories (2 Kings 13:14-19), and Jonah prophesied of the restoration that King Jeroboam II accomplished (2 Kings 14:25). This indicates that Jonah must have prophesied before Jeroboam II’s reign (793-753 B.C.E.), sometime in the earlier Eighth Century B.C.E.[23]

The Northern Kingdom had prided itself in its power, and because of this we see compelling warnings of judgment issued by the Lord. Amos was likely a contemporary of Jonah whose warnings against the Northern Kingdom were very strong. Jonah’s own flight to Tarshish was probably due to his thought that if Assyria were spared having repented, it could later defeat Israel. The Book of Jonah is unique among the Prophets because it depicts a single prophetic mission.

Varied themes have been proposed for the Book of Jonah, including: repentance, a contrast of Divine justice and Divine grace, and a conflict between nationalism and universalism. Is God only concerned about Israel, or all nations?[24] The Book of Jonah can often not be reduced to a single theme.[25]

There are important influences between the Book of Jonah and what we see in the teachings of Yeshua and mission of the Apostles.[26] We should all be aware of the fact that Yeshua the Messiah Himself treats Jonah as an actual prophet who was swallowed by a sea creature (Matthew 12:39-41; Luke 11:29-31) as a model for His death and resurrection. Likewise, Yeshua treats the repentance of the Ninevites as authentic.[27] Liberals will often claim, though, that Yeshua was only using a commonly known story to make a theological point, and they play down His treatment of Jonah as an historical figure.[28] We concur with Harrison, who asserts, “Whatever…Christ may have thought about Jonah, He certainly did not view it as a parable, but as something that was firmly rooted in history.”[29]

In Jewish tradition, the Book of Jonah is customarily read during the afternoon service of Yom Kippur (b.Megillah 31a), per its theme of repentance. Jews are encouraged to identify with the Ninevites.[30]

Some limited Messianic engagement of Jonah may take place during the season of Yom Kippur. Serious engagement with Jonah, though, is widely lacking in today’s Messianic community. Most only argue whether the “fish” was just a big fish, or actually a species of whale,[31] but there is frequently no consideration for the larger message of Jonah. Likewise, there is often no consideration for the critical views of Jonah, and how we can maintain the text’s integrity and Jonah as a real, historical prophet in the Lord’s service. This will certainly have to change as God equips us to fulfill His mission in the world, and we appropriate the important message—and indeed warning—that the Book of Jonah issues.

Bibliography

Barabas, Steven. “Jonah, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 539-541.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Jonah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1198-1204.

Craig, Jr., Kenneth M. “Jonah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1297-1302.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Jonah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 391-395.

Ellison, H.L. “Jonah,” in EXP, 7:361-391.

Fretheim, Terence E. “Jonah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 729-731.

Gunn, David. “Jonah,” in ECB, pp 699-702.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Jonah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 904-918.

Landes, G.M. “Jonah, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 488-491.

Magonet, Jonathan. “Jonah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:936-942.

Neil, W. “Jonah, Book of,” in IDB, 2:964-967.

Robinson, D.W.B. “Jonah,” in NCBR, pp 746-751.

Williams, W.C. “Jonah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1112-1116.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Jonah

[1] Jonathan Magonet, “Jonah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:937.

[2] D.W.B. Robinson, “Jonah,” in NCBR, 747.

[3] W.C. Williams, “Jonah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1114.

[4] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 905-908, 911-918; Williams, “Jonah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1115-1116.

[5] Dillard and Longman, 392.

[6] W. Neil, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDB, 2:964.

[7] Ibid., 2:966.

[8] Barabas, “Jonah, Book of,” in NIDB, 747; G.M. Landes, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDBSup, 490.

[9] Williams, “Jonah, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:1113-1114.

[10] Landes, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDBSup, 489.

[11] Neil, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDB, 2:966.

[12] H.L. Ellison, “Jonah,” in EXP, 7:363.

[13] Landes, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDBSup, 489.

[14] Kenneth M. Craig, Jr., “Jonah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1297; cf. D.W.B. Robinson, “Jonah,” in NBCR, 746; Dillard and Longman, 392.

[15] Terence E. Fretheim, “Jonah, Book of,” in EDB, 730.

[16] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 918; Magonet, “Jonah, Book of,” in ABD, 3:941.

[17] “May the bones of the twelve prophets revive from where they lie, for they comforted the people of Jacob and delivered them with confident hope” (Sirach 49:10).

[18] Ellison, in EXP, 7:364.

[19] Landes, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDBSup, 489; Fretheim, “Jonah, Book of,” in EDB, 729.

[20] Neil, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDB, 2:965-966.

[21] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 907-908.

[22] Ibid., 909.

[23] Ellison, in EXP, 7:361.

[24] Landes, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDBSup, 490; Steven Barabas, “Jonah, Book of,” in NIDB, 540.

[25] Dillard and Longman, pp 394-395.

[26] Ibid., 395.

[27] Robinson, in NCBR, 747; Ellison, in EXP, 7:362.

[28] Neil, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDB, 2:966; Dillard and Longman, 393.

[29] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 906.

[30] Ehud ben Zvi, “Jonah,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1199.

[31] Neil, “Jonah, Book of,” in IDB, 2:964.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON JONAH:

1. What was the severe sin that Jonah committed when commanded by the Lord to go to Nineveh?

2. What did Jonah pray to the Lord while inside the great “fish”?

3. What is the connection made in the Gospels between Jonah being inside of the sea monster and the resurrection of Yeshua (1:17; cf. Matthew 12:40; 16:4; Luke 11:30)?

4. Why do you think Jonah was angry about the repentance of the Ninevites?

5. Do you believe that the Book of Jonah is factually accurate? Why or why not?

6. Do you believe today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Jonah seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON JONAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Jonah:

BOOK OF MICAH

Approximate date: 700s B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate); 400s-200s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: judgment on the Northern Kingdom, and promised judgment on the Southern Kingdom

Author(s): Micah (Right, some conservative-moderate); Micah and/or anonymous other(s) (some conservative moderate); Micah and anonymous redactors (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in Judah (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and location: Jerusalemites

People:

Micah

People mentioned:

Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Jacob (representing “Israel”), Assyrian(s), Moses, Aaron, Miriam, Balak, Balaam, Omri, Ahab, Abraham

Places:

Moresheth, Judah, Samaria, Jerusalem, Babylon, Bethlehem Ephratah

Places mentioned:

Gath, Beth Ophrah, Shaphir, Zaanan, Beth Ezel, Maroth, Lachish, Moresheth Gath, Aczib, Mareshah, Adullam, land of Nimrod (Assyria), Egypt, Moab, Shittim, Gilgal, Assyria, Euphrates, Bashan, Gilead

Key Themes:

judgment is proclaimed against Jerusalem, but most especially Samaria because of its idolatry / the Lord proclaims that varied towns throughout Israel will weep and mourn / God says that He is planning disaster against those who plan evil / Micah describes false prophets who reject the righteous judgment of the Lord / God as King promises deliverance for His people / the Lord rebukes false prophets and leaders who should have upheld His standard of justice, and have failed to do so / the Lord says that in the Last Days the nations will look to Zion and be taught from His Torah and the Word / the Lord promises restoration for the exiles of Zion / the “Daughter of Zion” will be sent to Babylon, only later to be rescued / a Deliverer for Zion will arise from Bethlehem Ephratah, One who will serve as Shepherd and whose peace will reach all over the world / “Assyria” will be defeated by God’s Deliverer / the Lord declares the mighty deliverances He has performed for Israel / Micah calls the people to perform justice, mercy, and walk humbly before God / Micah says that the people must be punished, as Judah has fallen prey to the sins of Omri and Ahab / Micah summarizes the gross sins that have engulfed Judah/ Micah declares that although the people have fallen, they will rise up and experience the power of the Lord / Micah asserts that God’s mercy upon His people will ultimately prevail

Key Scriptures: Micah 2:1-4, 6; 3:5-7; 4:1-3, 6-8; 5:2-4; 6:8, 16; 7:7, 16, 18-20 / The trial of the capitals (1:1-2:13); The trial of the leaders (3:1-5:15);  The trial of the people (6:1-7:20)

Theological Summary: The name Micah (Heb. Mikah) means “who is like the LORD”? We know very little of the prophet who bears this name, other than the fact that Micah was from the village of Moresheth (1:1; cf. Jeremiah 26:18) in southern Judah. Micah prophesied during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (750-686 B.C.E.), making him a contemporary of Isaiah and Amos. The birthplace of Amos, Tekoa (Amos 1:1), was less than twenty miles from Moresheth, and this would likely have had an influence on Micah’s message.[1] In the traditional Jewish order of the Tanach, the Book of Micah appears sixth among the Twelve Prophets, but in the Greek LXX Micah is placed third after Amos and Hosea, likely because of the time period it was composed or its length.[2]

It is unknown whether Micah actually wrote his prophecies, or whether someone else wrote them down for him.[3] Conservatives widely hold to some kind of unity for Micah.[4] It is possible that chs. 5-7 may include some expansions of genuine Micah material,[5] but nothing so substantial so as to alter the original prophecies. These slight expansions could reflect the thoughts of those who received his initial prophecies. However, likewise important to note is that many conservatives hold to Micah’s uniqueness in thought and language as being a direct result of his authorship, not the compilation of some of his followers and/or supporters.[6] But regardless of which option is the case, the most important factor to keep in mind is that “If one grants the possibility of predictive prophecy…there are no persuasive reasons for denying Micah authorship of any part of the book” (Dillard and Longman).[7]

Liberals, in stark contrast to conservatives, have often felt that only certain sections of the Book of Micah are authentic to the prophet, namely those sections that are negative and deal with God’s judgment. This view is commonly supported with Jeremiah’s quote from Micah (Jeremiah 26:18) of Micah being a prophet of doom.[8] The more positive sections of Micah (2:12-13; chs. 4-7) are often believed to have been added at a later date[9] after the Babylonian exile.[10] Liberals also commonly argue that the reference to “Babylon” (4:6-13) must also be a later interpolation, but conservatives often respond by pointing out that “Babylon” could be viewed as a general reference to the East, and that “Against a poetic background of the kind employed by Micah, both ‘Assyrian’ and ‘Babylon’ would be perfectly acceptable surrogates” (Harrison).[11]

When encountering liberal views of Micah, one will see that critical scholarship has widely held the text to be made up of short poems and oracles strung together by a later editor.[12] Some liberals today, though, primarily on the basis of literary grounds, are acceding more unity to the text of Micah. “This hypothesis permits one to see many of the disparate elements in Micah as united by the common psychological or social situation from which they arise” (ABD),[13] including a great part of it actually originating in the Eighth Century B.C.E. Still, another current avenue in liberal scholarship is to simply analyze Micah for its theology and message, as often no liberal consensus can arise as to how the text came to exist in its present form.[14]

Conservative and liberal presuppositions of the composition of Micah undoubtedly affect how the integrity of the text is viewed. Some liberals feel that the Hebrew MT of Micah is in bad condition. They insist that usage of secondary resources such as the Greek LXX, Syriac Peshitta, and most recently the DSS is often necessary for understanding it.[15] Conservatives, in contrast, often feel that the Hebrew MT of Micah is in relatively good condition, and that the witnesses of the DSS indicate that there has been little problem in Micah’s textual transmission.[16]

The Prophet Micah does not demonstrate the same political knowledge of Judah as does Isaiah, even though they both demonstrate some level of affinity (4:1-4 and Isaiah 2:2-4 are effectively the same Scriptures). Micah reflects the position of someone from the villages[17] and his message does concern the social injustices of the common people.[18] As a result of what has happened, Micah predicts the fall of Samaria (1:5-7) and the eventual defeat of Judah (1:9-16). While Micah attacks the idolatry of Israel, he is actually more concerned about the state of the people who had suffered as a result of its ensuing corruption.[19] The important historical backdrop to consider when examining Micah includes the fall of the Northern Kingdom to Assyria, and the near destruction of the Southern Kingdom by Assyria.[20] Two major periods are covered: the last years of the Divided Monarchy, followed by the monarchy of Judah alone. One can certainly see some parallels between the style of Micah and the style of Isaiah.

Micah’s prophecies alternate between a message of judgment and a message of hope.[21] God hates idolatry and injustice (3:8), but will pardon the repentant (7:18-19). Chs. 2-3 generally deal with Judah’s sins, and its oppression of the poor. But in spite of the judgment that God will inflict, Zion will be afforded a position of greater prestige (4:1-2) in the future, and a Deliverer will be sent (5:1-4). A unique thrust of Micah is that in spite of God’s judgment upon Israel and Judah, this would nevertheless be used by Him for His redemption to be accomplished in the whole world.[22]

Micah 5:2 is a very important passage relating to the prophetic expectation embodied in Yeshua the Messiah, as quoted in Matthew 2:6. Micah 4:1-5 depicts the elevation of the mountain of God, and 6:6-8 lists the traits that God desires of His people.[23] The eschatological message of Micah undoubtedly affected the worldview of the Apostles.

There is currently not a great deal of Messianic engagement with the Book of Micah, even though Micah 5:6-6:8 is the Haftarah reading for Balak (Numbers 22:2-25:9). Micah does play a role among various Jewish traditions in the customary readings of the Fall high holidays.[24] Micah, similar to Amos, asks Messianics today difficult questions regarding social engagement. More importantly, Micah asks us questions about the punishment meted by God upon Israel, and the promises of redemption via a Messianic King.

Bibliography

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Micah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1205-1218.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Micah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 397-402.

Harris, R. Laird, “Micah, Book of,” in NIDB, 647.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Micah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 919-925.

Hillers, Delbert R. “Micah, Book of,” in ABD, 4:807-810.

Leslie, E.A. “Micah the prophet,” in IDB, 3:369-372.

McComiskey, T.E. “Micah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:343-346.

________________. “Micah,” in EXP, 7:395-445.

Rogerson, John W. “Micah,” in ECB, pp 703-707.

Sanderson, Judith E. “Micah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1303-1313.

Shaw, Charles S. “Micah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 893-895.

Ward, J.M. “Micah the prophet,” in IDBSup, pp 592-593.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Micah

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 920; T.E. McComiskey, “Micah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:344.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 919.

[3] Ibid., 925.

[4] T.E. McComiskey, “Micah,” in EXP, 7:397.

[5] John W. Rogerson, “Micah,” in ECB, 703.

[6] McComiskey, in EXP, 7:398.

[7] Dillard and Longman, 398.

[8] R. Laird Harris, “Micah, Book of,” in NIDB, 647.

[9] E.A. Leslie, “Micah the prophet,” in IDB, 3:371; J.M. Ward, “Micah the prophet,” in IDBSup, 593; Charles S. Shaw, “Micah, Book of,” in EDB, 894.

[10] Dillard and Longman, 399.

[11] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 924.

[12] Delbert R. Hillers, “Micah, Book of,” in ABD, 4:807-808.

[13] Ibid., 4:809.

[14] Shaw, “Micah, Book of,” in EDB, 895.

[15] Hillers, “Micah, Book of,” in ABD, 4:809.

[16] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 925.

[17] Leslie, “Micah the prophet,” in IDB, 3:369; Judith E. Sanderson, “Micah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1303.

[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 921.

[19] McComiskey, in EXP, 7:395.

[20] McComiskey, “Micah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:344; Dillard and Longman, pp 398-399.

[21] Dillard and Longman, pp 401-402.

[22] McComiskey, “Micah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:346; McComiskey, in EXP, 7:339.

[23] Dillard and Longman, pp 397, 402.

[24] Ehud ben Zvi, “Micah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1205-1206.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON MICAH:

1. What is the principal message of the Prophet Micah to the people of Judah, or at least Israel in general?

2. How serious was it for God to rebuke the false prophets and leaders in ch. 3?

3. What is the eschatological promise as detailed in 4:1-3? How might this relate to the growth and expansion of today’s Messianic community?

4. Describe the Messianic significance of 5:1-4 (cf. Matthew 2:6; John 7:42). Do you agree with the opinion that “the Assyrian” (5:5) is the embodiment of all of Israel’s historical enemies? Why or why not?

5. How significant was it for Micah to charge his audience as committing the sins of Omri and Ahab (6:16)?

6. Do you believe today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Micah seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON MICAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Micah:

BOOK OF NAHUM

Approximate date: mid 600s B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate, some Left); 400s-200s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: the impending fall of Nineveh at the hands of Babylon

Author(s): Nahum (Right, some conservative-moderate); Nahum and/or anonymous other(s) (some conservative moderate); Nahum and anonymous redactors (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in Judah (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites and Ninevites

People:

Nahum the Elkoshite

People mentioned:

Judah (people), Jacob and Israel (the second reference to people), king of Assyria

Places:

Nineveh

Places mentioned:

Bashan, Carmel, Lebanon, Thebes, Nile, Cush, Egypt, Put, Libya

Key Themes:

God states His intention to judge Nineveh / Judah will be freed from Nineveh’s dominance / God decrees that an outsider will come and advance on Nineveh / God recounts how horrific the fall of Nineveh will be / Nineveh is compared to other cities that have fallen

Key Scriptures: Nahum 1:7-9, 12-13; 2:13 / Nineveh’s judge (1:1-15); Nineveh’s judgment (2:1-3:19)

Theological Summary: The Book of Nahum (Heb. Nachum) is a text containing this prophet’s vision (1:1), and primarily concerns the fall of Nineveh which occurred in 612 B.C.E. The name of the prophet means “comfort” (3:7). Nahum appears seventh among the Twelve Prophets of the Tanach, but is listed after the Book of Jonah in the Greek LXX.[1] We know little about Nahum himself, other than that he came from the (unknown) village of Elkosh (1:1), and there are various proposals offered as to where this place was located in antiquity.[2]

Nahum is a brief, yet difficult book to consider, as its principal focus is God’s judgment upon Nineveh. It is a text rooted in Biblical history, as the author attests to the fall of the Egyptian city of Thebes or No Amon (3:8-10), something that occurred in 663 B.C.E. With Nahum prophesying the fall of Nineveh/Assyria, the period portrayed by the text thus falls somewhere between 663-612 B.C.E. Nahum was likely a contemporary of Zephaniah, Habakkuk, and Jeremiah.[3]

Often asserted by conservatives is that Nahum was actually a “writing prophet.”[4] It is suggested that Nahum was a writing prophet because of the eloquent composition of his prophecies, which are considered more eloquent than just oral accounts of a prophet written down. Conservatives widely accept that Nahum is predicting future events regarding the defeat of Nineveh, not reflecting back on events that have already happened. Some propose a composition of around 625 B.C.E., about ten years before the fall of Nineveh.[5]

Because of the detailed description of the fall of Nineveh, liberals often assert that the Book of Nahum was written very close to the event, possibly immediately after it. Some liberals adhere to a post-exilic composition of Nahum,[6] and may simply argue that “Nineveh is viewed as paradigmatic of evil” (EDB).[7] A common criticism of Nahum is that it only depicts a vengeful God with no mercy or compassion, and that the Prophet Nahum is a nationalistic, perhaps even false prophet, with no interest in anything but Israel.[8] However, one cannot overlook the fact that in Nahum God is depicted as merciful (1:3; cf. Exodus 34:6) and that Nahum quotes Isaiah’s promise of peace for His people (1:15; cf. Isaiah 52:7).

There are no significant differences between the DSS and LXX versions of Nahum. However, because of the unique poetry of Nahum, studies in Ugaritic and of Neo-Assyrian literature can aid in one’s examination of the Hebrew of the text.[9]

The historical backdrop of Nahum can aid one significantly in examining the text as well. Assyria, represented by Nineveh, had already conquered the Northern Kingdom and posed a significant threat to the Southern Kingdom. The Assyrians were extremely brutal and ruthless,[10] yet the judgment upon Nineveh had been temporarily averted per the work of Jonah (Jonah 3:4). However, following the death of Ashurbanipal the Babylonians began approaching upon Assyria,[11] by this time a waning power. The Prophet Nahum cheered the fall of Nineveh as part of the Divine justice of God. Notable parallels exist between the Books of Nahum and Isaiah.[12]

Nahum includes words directed to both the Southern Kingdom Israelites (1:12-13) as the Temple is mentioned (1:15), but more are directed to the Ninevites (1:1, 14; 2:1, 13; 3:5-17, 19). The judgment oracles issued include vocabulary with varied moods present. The Book of Nahum depicts God as being “slow to anger” (1:3) and “a refuge in times of trouble” (1:7, NIV), but also One “who will by no means clear the guilty” (1:3, RSV). Difficult questions are often asked of the interpreter, as Nahum does depict a God who will judge the nations of the world. An underlying theme seen in Nahum is that while God will judge Nineveh for its sin, God will also judge Judah should it fall into a similar state. It is not impossible that Judah was in its own tenuous political and spiritual condition at the time of Nahum prophesying.[13]

The message of Nahum for us today is very clear: if we lose trust in God then we are in severe danger. God is against those who oppose Him (2:13; 3:5). The setting of Nahum’s prophecies regarded the defeat of Nineveh and the comfort of Judah.[14] Appropriating this, “The Qumran community saw these theological issues and took comfort because they believed God would destroy their enemies” (ISBE).[15] Both conservative and liberal interpreters should be united around the fact that “the book contains magnificent imagery as it contrasts the awesome majesty of God with the ultimate nothingness of some of the highest achievements of human civilization” (ECB).[16]

The tone of the Book of Nahum is harsh and it is very bloody, sadly keeping many Christians away from examining it.[17] From a typological standpoint, though, Nahum helps us to understand Yeshua the Messiah as a warrior who will fight a future battle against Satan and his armies. At present, there is no significant Messianic engagement with the Book of Nahum.

Bibliography

Amerding, Carl E. “Nahum,” in EXP, 7:449-489.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Nahum,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1219-1225.

Cathcart, Kevin J. “Nahum, Book of,” in ABD, 4:998-100.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Nahum,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 403-408.

Fraser, Alexander. “Nahum,” in NBCR, pp 762-766.

Harris, R. Laird. “Nahum, Book of,” in NIDB, p 689.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Nahum,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 926-930.

Leslie, E.A. “Nahum, Book of,” in IDB, 3:498-499.

Nowell, Irene. “Nahum,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1315-1319.

Nysee, Richard. “Nahum, Book of,” in EDB, pp 943-944.

Rogerson, John W. “Nahum,” in ECB, pp 708-709.

Smith, G.V. “Nahum,” in ISBE, 3:477-479.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Nahum

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 926.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 926; Dillard and Longman, 404.

[3] Alexander Fraser, “Nahum,” in NBCR, 762.

[4] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 928; Carl E. Amerding, “Nahum,” in EXP, 7:452; Dillard and Longman, 404.

[5] Kevin J. Cathcart, “Nahum, Book of,” in ABD, 4:999.

[6] Ibid., 4:999.

[7] Richard Nysee, “Nahum, Book of,” in EDB, 943; cf. John W. Rogerson, “Nahum,” in ECB, 708.

[8] Nysee, “Nahum, Book of,” in EDB, 943.

[9] Cathcart, “Nahum, Book of,” in ABD, 4:998.

[10] Amerding, in EXP, 7:449-451; Dillard and Longman, 405.

[11] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 927.

[12] Amerding, in EXP, 7:454-456.

[13] R. Laird. Harris, “Nahum, Book of,” in NIDB, 689.

[14] Fraser, in NBCR, 763.

[15] G.V. Smith, “Nahum,” in ISBE, 3:479; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 930.

[16] Rogerson, in ECB, 708.

[17] Dillard and Longman, pp 403, 408.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON NAHUM:

1. What do you think happened to Nineveh for its people to warrant such judgment by God, especially following the repentance that occurred during the ministry of Jonah?

2. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Nahum seriously?

REFLECTION ON NAHUM’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Nahum:

BOOK OF HABAKKUK

Approximate date: 640-612 B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate, some Left); 400s-200s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: immediately before the judgment on the Southern Kingdom via Babylon

Author(s): Habakkuk exclusively (Right, some conservative-moderate); Habakkuk and/or anonymous other(s) (some conservative moderate, some Left); Habakkuk and anonymous redactors (some Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in Judah (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites

People:

Habakkuk

People mentioned:

Babylonians

Places:

Lebanon, Teman, Mount Paran, Cushan, Midian

Key Themes:

Habakkuk asks the Lord why He does not intervene due to the sin of Judah / the Lord responds by saying He will send the ruthless Babylonians / Habakkuk asks the Lord why He seems to tolerate injustice / the Lord decrees that He will judge Babylon, whom He has used to judge Judah / Habakkuk prays to the Lord, declaring His greatness

Key Scriptures: Habakkuk 1:2-5; 2:4; 3:2, 18-19 / Habakkuk’s doubt (1:1-2:20); Habakkuk’s prayer (3:1-19)

Theological Summary: Not much is known about the Prophet Habakkuk himself, other than that he was probably a contemporary of Jeremiah. The meaning of the name Chavaqquq is elusive, as it may be similar to an Akkadian word meaning “plant,” although others have suggested that it means “to clasp,”[1] “to embrace,”[2] or “wrestler.”[3] Some have tried to link Habakkuk to the priesthood.[4] Given the prediction of Babylon’s invasion (1:6), Habakkuk likely lived in Judah sometime near the end of Josiah’s reign (640-609 B.C.E.) or the beginning of Jehoiakim’s reign (609-598 B.C.E.). Theologians have speculated that the prophecy of Judah’s fall was probably given after the Egyptians were defeated in battle by Babylon (cf. Jeremiah 46). Habakkuk, like Jeremiah, could have probably witnessed the fall of Judah to Babylon.

While a small text, the Book of Habakkuk is debated because of various historical-critical issues, and with the interpretation of some passages in both Jewish and Christian theology.[5] It is not agreed whether or not Habakkuk wrote the entire text, or that the entire text originates with him. The concentrated debate largely concerns ch. 3, and whether or not it was appended by another hand,[6] particularly because of some stylistic differences. It is notable, though, that these discussions are modern, and there were no major ancient debates surrounding the text.[7] Ancient Hebrew and Greek witnesses do include ch. 3. The dialogue that ensues between the Prophet Habakkuk and the Lord was considered to be Divine revelation, possibly via a similar process to how various psalms were considered canonical.[8]

Conservatives generally argue for some kind of unified composition of the Book of Habakkuk, dating it to the Seventh or Sixth Centuries B.C.E. Support is derived from the facts that the Temple is depicted as still standing (2:20; 3:19), and the Babylonians are depicted as a rising power (1:5-6).

Some liberals favor a pre-exilic composition of Habakkuk, and some liberals favor a post-exilic composition. Liberals assert that perhaps some part of the text is authentic to Habakkuk, but the prophet’s original oracles may have been appended. A few have suggested that the Chaldeans are to be interpreted as not being the actual Chaldeans/Babylonians, but instead as representing the Greeks. If this is how Habakkuk is to be viewed, then the text is indeed post-exilic,[9] but all conservatives discount this. Liberals will often argue for ch. 3 being appended at a later date,[10] but can also stress Habakkuk being a literary masterpiece.

The Hebrew MT of Habakkuk is not always clear, and sometimes the Greek LXX must be consulted. There is no agreement between conservatives and liberals as to how much or how little the MT has been preserved, with conservatives[11] favoring a higher degree of preservation than liberals.[12] A commentary on Habakkuk found among the DSS only includes remarks made on chs. 1-2,[13] where some find support for chs. 1-2 only being authentic to the prophet. It is notable that ch. 3 is found in all complete copies of the LXX and in Hebrew texts dating to the Second Century C.E.[14] Harrison is a conservative who sits between the liberal and significant conservative view of preservation, noting that the Hebrew text has not been preserved that well, and that the LXX should be consulted for some verses (1:6; 3:10).[15] He does, however, consider ch. 3 to be authentic to Habakkuk.[16]

Habakkuk is rooted in the history of the perilous political times either before or during Jehoiakim’s reign, which was pro-Egyptian and not pro-Babylonian.[17]

The Book of Habakkuk is a unique text that includes no oracles delivered by God to the people, but rather is largely a dialogue between the prophet and God. The Prophet Habakkuk is seen arguing with God over ways that he perceives to be unfair or unjust (chs. 1-2). God replies, and Habakkuk confesses his faith in Him (ch. 3). Habakkuk does not just compose a “personal journal” between a prophet and God, but was composed to teach a very important lesson. Certainly some Southern Kingdom Israelites would have wondered why God would not have just intervened when wickedness and corruption had manifested themselves in Judah.[18] Ultimately, we see that those used to judge Judah would themselves be judged (2:8), as evil is a universal human problem (2:9-10).

A major thrust seen in Habakkuk is to have patient faith in the Lord (2:3-4), as God’s Kingdom will reveal itself (2:14). This is a test that chastises not Israel, but the prophet who chastises God.[19]

The Prophet Habakkuk was considered important enough to be mentioned in the Apocryphal work Bel and the Dragon, as one who assisted in rescuing Daniel from the lion’s den,[20] but most theologians regard this as legend. Other legends also arose concerning Habakkuk and his parentage,[21] particularly in some pseudepigraphal[22] and early Christian writing.[23]

The DSS commentary on Habakkuk interprets Habakkuk’s message against the events of the First Century B.C.E., considering the Chaldeans to represent the Romans.[24] In the Jewish theological tradition, Habakkuk 2:4 is quoted as a summary of the Torah’s 613 commandments (b.Makkot 23b-24a).[25] To a more modern Jewish audience, the Book of Habakkuk asks questions regarding the allowance of the Holocaust by God, and other similar atrocities.

Habakkuk 2:4 in the Tanach, “the righteous person shall live through his faith” (ATS), is a major verse for the doctrine of “justification by faith” (cf. Galatians 3:11; Romans 1:17),[26] widely thought of as a cardinal tenet of Protestantism. The Talmud makes an interesting observation on Habakkuk 2:4, noting,

“Isaiah again came and reduced them to two: ‘Thus says the Lord, (i) Keep justice and (ii) do righteousness’ (Isa. 56:1). Amos came and reduced them to a single one, as it is said, ‘For thus says the Lord to the house of Israel. Seek Me and live.’ Objected R. Nahman bar Isaac, “Maybe the sense is, ‘seek me’ through the whole of the Torah?’ Rather, [Simelai continues:] ‘Habakkuk further came and based them on one, as it is said, “But the righteous shall live by his faith” (Habakkuk 2:4)’” (b.Makkot 24a).[27]

Here, obedience to God is ultimately distilled down to one’s faith in Him—with everything else coming as a direct result of that faith. The theological value of Habakkuk is extremely important for anyone’s interpretation of the Apostolic Scriptures. Furthermore, the value of Habakkuk should not just be limited to his emphasis on faith. The Prophet Habakkuk asks some very poignant questions about the actions of God and the judgment of His people.

Habakkuk 3 is the Haftarah selection for Shavuot, concurrent with the revelation of the Torah given at Mount Sinai.[28]

At present, there is no serious Messianic engagement with the Book of Habakkuk. Undoubtedly, this will change given time, especially as more examination occurs with texts such as Galatians and Romans.

Bibliography

Amerding, C.E. “Habakkuk,” in ISBE, 2:583-586.

___________. “Habakkuk,” in EXP, 7:493-534.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Habakkuk,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1226-1233.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Habakkuk,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 409-413.

Gelston, Anthony. “Habakkuk,” in ECB, pp 710-714.

Graybill, John B. “Habakkuk,” in NIDB, pp 407-408.

Haak, Robert D. “Habakkuk,” in EDB, pp 535-536.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Habakkuk,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 931-938.

Leslie, E.A. “Habakkuk,” in IDB, 2:503-505.

Stephens-Hodes, L.E.H. “Habakkuk,” in NBCR, pp 767-772.

Sweeney, Marvin. “Habakkuk, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1-6.

______________.“Habakkuk,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1321-1326.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Habakkuk

[1] L.E.H. Stephens-Hodes, “Habakkuk,” in NBCR, 767.

[2] Marvin Sweeney, “Habakkuk, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1; Dillard and Longman, 409.

[3] C.E. Amerding, “Habakkuk,” in ISBE, 2:583.

[4] E.A. Leslie, “Habakkuk,” in IDB, 2:503.

[5] Robert D. Haak, “Habakkuk,” in EDB, 535.

[6] Leslie, “Habakkuk,” in IDB, 2:503.

[7] Amerding, “Habakkuk,” in ISBE, 2:584.

[8] Ehud ben Zvi, “Habakkuk,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1226.

[9] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 933-934; Stephens-Hodes, in NBCR, 768; John B. Graybill, “Habakkuk,” in NIDB, 407.

[10] Sweeney, “Habakkuk, Book of,” in ABD, 3:4; Haak, “Habakkuk,” in EDB, 535.

[11] Amerding, “Habakkuk,” in ISBE, 2:584.

[12] Sweeney, “Habakkuk, Book of,” in ABD, 3:2.

[13] Leslie, “Habakkuk,” in IDB, 2:504-505.

[14] Dillard and Longman, 411.

[15] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 938.

[16] Ibid., 936.

[17] Stephens-Hodes, in NBCR, 767; Dillard and Longman, pp 410-411.

[18] C.E. Amerding, “Habakkuk,” in EXP, 7:494.

[19] Stephens-Hodes, in NBCR, 767.

[20] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 931.

[21] Dillard and Longman, 409.

[22] Sweeney, “Habakkuk, Book of,” in ABD, 3:1-2.

[23] Amerding, “Habakkuk,” in ISBE, 2:583.

[24] ben Zvi, in Jewish Study Bible, 1227.

[25] Cf. Marvin Sweeney, “Habakkuk,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1231.

[26] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 937; Amerding, in EXP, 7:485.

[27] The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary; Dillard and Longman, 409.

[28] Sweeney, “Habakkuk, Book of,” in ABD, 3:5.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON HABAKKUK:

1. How significant is the pattern of Habakkuk’s questions of God, and God’s subsequent responses?

2. What important theme seen in Habakkuk 2:4 later guides a substantial amount of Apostolic theology, particularly in Paul’s letters to the Galatians and Romans?

3. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Habakkuk seriously?

(4. Have you ever questioned God in a manner similar to the Prophet Habakkuk?)

REFLECTION ON HABAKKUK’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Habakkuk:

BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH

Approximate date: 640-622 B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate, some Left); 400s-200s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time Period: required change for the people of Judah

Author(s): Zephaniah (Right, some conservative-moderate); Zephaniah and/or anonymous other(s) (some conservative moderate, some Left); Zephaniah and anonymous redactors (some Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in Judah (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites and Jerusalemites

People:

Zephaniah (son of Cushi, son of Gedaliah, son of Amariah, son of Hezekiah)

People mentioned:

Josiah, Judah (people), Baal (deity), Molech (deity), Kerethites, Philistines, Ammonites, Cushites, “Daughter of Zion”

Places:

Jerusalem, Fish Gate, New Quarter, Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, Canaan, Moab, Assyria, Nineveh

Places mentioned:

Sodom, Gomorrah

Key Themes:

God declares that fierce judgment is coming / God will severely punish those in Jerusalem who have followed after pagan deities / nothing on Earth will be able to save people from being engulfed by the Day of the LORD / Zephaniah calls those faithful to the Lord to turn to Him prior to His judgment being enacted / God will judge the Philistines / God will judge Moab and Ammon / God will judge the Cushites / God will judge Assyria / Jerusalem is described as being filled with unrighteousness and unfaithfulness / the Lord will dispense His own justice, and the remnant of His people will be brought to Him / Zion will be restored in the midst of the Earth

Key Scriptures: Zephaniah 1:12-13, 15-16; 2:3; 3:1-2, 5, 9, 14-15 / The day of wrath (1:1-3:8); The day of hope (3:9-20)

Theological Summary: The Prophet Zephaniah was likely a person of considerable social status in Judah, as indicated by his ancestry (1:1), which designates him a fourth generation descendant of King Hezekiah.[1] The meaning of Zephaniah’s name (Heb. Tzefanyah) is disputed, with some favoring “the LORD has hidden,” and others “watchman for the LORD.”[2] Zephaniah demonstrates some knowledge of the political climate of the Southern Kingdom, and the prophetic works of Isaiah and Amos. Compared to Micah, whose prophecies focus on the plight of the common people of Judah, Zephaniah focuses his attention in more distinguished circles. Zephaniah could have known about a young Jeremiah.

Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640-609 B.C.E.), making him contemporary to Jeremiah, Nahum, and possibly Habakkuk, either just before or sometime during the Josianic reforms.[3] Some find evidence that the Josianic reforms were already underway[4] because of the reference to “the remnant of Baal” (1:4) and various allusions to the Book of Deuteronomy (1:13; cf. Deuteronomy 28:30; 1:17; cf. Deuteronomy 28:29). The Book of Zephaniah is the last pre-exilic text.

Conservatives hold to some kind of unity for the composition of Zephaniah, noting that “all of Zephaniah is intelligible as spoken in Josiah’s reign” (ISBE).[5] It is possible, though, that some references to “the scattered ones” (2:7, 9; 3:10, 19) are post-exilic redactions, but nothing so as to dismiss a core of the text originating from Zephaniah.

Liberals have largely doubted some kind of unified authorship or composition of Zephaniah, arguing that sections of Zephaniah were written in the post-monarchic period, specifically 3:9-20. There are liberal trends, however, which indicate that some are willing to designate the salvific section(s) as not being later additions,[6] and more liberals are leaning toward a greater part of Zephaniah being authentic to the prophet.[7]

The Hebrew MT of Zephaniah is in good condition, even though consultation of the Greek LXX is helpful with some passages.[8]

The Prophet Zephaniah announced God’s judgment upon the people of Judah. His words are given against a probable backdrop of the Scythian invasion of Assyria, as Josiah’s reforms could be enacted without significant Assyrian reprisal[9] as a declining power.[10] A major focus of Zephaniah is the Day of the LORD when God will severely punish both the nations (ch. 2) and Judah.[11] In spite of God’s judgment, God is also merciful and will restore His people in the end (ch. 3).

The Josianic reforms were only temporary, as the people of Judah would fall back into their previous sinful patterns. Many of the prominent families of Judah would participate in worship of the Queen of Heaven (2 Kings 23:11).[12] Zephaniah indicts the people of Judah for this idolatry (1:1-2:3), and then indicts the nations who influenced Judah (2:4-15). A key thrust of Zephaniah is God’s holiness and His grace.[13]

Allusions to Zephaniah and his message are seen in various places in the Apostolic Scriptures,[14] certainly affecting some of the eschatological expectations of the Apostles,[15] as particularly seen in Revelation.[16] More modern engagement with Zephaniah largely takes the text to relate “to contemporary institutions, calling upon the authorities to make sweeping and effective reforms lest the judgment threatened by Zephaniah befall the present government” (ISBE).[17]

There has currently been no significant Messianic engagement with the Book of Zephaniah.

Bibliography

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Zephaniah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1327-1332.

___________. “Zephaniah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1234-1242.

Carson, John T. “Zephaniah,” in NBCR, pp 773-780.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Zephaniah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 415-420.

Fensham, F.C. “Zephaniah, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 983-984.

Gelston, Anthony. “Zephaniah,” in ECB, pp 715-717.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Zephaniah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 939-943.

King, Greg A. “Zephaniah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 1416-1417.

Kselman, John S. “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ABD, 6:1077-1080.

Leslie, E.A. “Zephaniah, Book of,” in IDB, 4:951-95.3.

McComiskey, Thomas Edward. “Zephaniah, Book of,” in NIDB, p 1085.

Schneider, D.A. “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1189-1191.

Walker, Larry Lee. “Zephaniah,” in EXP, 7:537-565.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Zephaniah

[1] Dillard and Longman, 415.

[2] Larry Lee Walker, “Zephaniah,” in EXP, 7:537.

[3] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 940.

[4] D.A. Schneider, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1189; Dillard and Longman, 416.

[5] Schneider, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1189.

[6] F.C. Fensham, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in IDBSup, 984; Greg A. King, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in EDB, 1416.

[7] John S. Kselman, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ABD, 6:1078.

[8] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 943; Kselman, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ABD, 6:1078.

[9] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 940.

[10] Fensham, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in IDBSup, 984.

[11] Dillard and Longman, 419.

[12] E.A. Leslie, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in IDB, 4:951.

[13] Schneider, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1190.

[14] Ibid., 4:1191.

[15] Dillard and Longman, 420.

[16] King, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in EDB, 1417.

[17] Schneider, “Zephaniah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1191.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON ZEPHANIAH:

1. How encompassing is God’s judgment of sin as described in the Book of Zephaniah?

2. What is God’s promise to His people and to Jerusalem?

3. Do you believe today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Zephaniah seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON ZEPHANIAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Zephaniah:

BOOK OF HAGGAI

Approximate date: 520 B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate); 520-400s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: construction of the Second Temple

Author(s): Haggai (Right, some conservative-moderate); Haggai and/or anonymous other(s) (some conservative moderate, some Left); anonymous (some Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in Judah (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Jewish exiles having returned from Babylon

People:

Haggai, Zerubbabel (son of Shealtiel), Joshua (son of Jehozadak)

People mentioned:

King Darius

Places:

Judah

Places mentioned:

Egypt

Key Themes and Events:

Haggai declares that the people will experience drought because they have failed to finish the House of the Lord / after Haggai’s declaration, the people agree to finish building God’s House / Haggai asks the people if any of them remember the glory of the First Temple / God says He will fill the new House with His glory / God tells Haggai that the people are to remember their previous blight / God says that He will bless the people / Haggai is told by the Lord to tell Zerubbabel of His mighty power over human governments

Key Scriptures: Haggai 1:2-4, 9, 13-14; 2:3, 6, 14-16 / The call to rebuild the Temple (1:1-15); Encouragement to complete the Temple (2:1-23)

Theological Summary: Haggai was a post-exilic prophet who was used by God to encourage the returned Jewish exiles to rebuild the Temple (Ezra 5:1-2; 6:14). The name Chaggai means “festal,” “which would suggest that the prophet was born on some feast day” (IDB),[1] probably with an intended connection to one of the three major pilgrimage feasts (Passover, Pentecost, Tabernacles). We do not know very much about Haggai’s background. Some have speculated (cf. 2:3) that Haggai was present when the First Temple was destroyed, making him very old by the time his prophecies were delivered. Others, however, doubt this and believe that Haggai was probably a child when he arrived in Judea,[2] having been born in the exile. Neither view should significantly alter our interpretation of the text. Haggai began to prophesy at the time after Cyrus the Great of Persia allowed around 50,000 Jewish exiles to return home to the Land of Israel (Ezra 2:64; Nehemiah 7:66), forming the Persian province of Yehud.[3] Haggai is the second shortest book in the Tanach, after Obadiah.

Haggai’s messages are some of the most precisely dated in the whole of the Tanach, given in a four month period in 520 B.C.E.[4] The two main dates are likely August 29 (first day of the sixth month) and December 18 (twenty-fourth day of the ninth month) as seen in 1:1; 2:1, 10. While these dates can be important to consider, there is a danger of placing an over-emphasis on them, when Haggai’s prophetic ministry surely lasted more than four months.[5]

When we consider the actual composition of the Book of Haggai, was Haggai a writing prophet, or did he have someone else write down his messages? This is unknown, but since the text is written in the third person, some suggest that a close associate of Haggai’s actually wrote the text.[6] Notably, as the messages are precisely dated, if Haggai did not write this book certainly he knew of its being written and oversaw some part of it. Jewish tradition ascribes ultimate authorship to the members of the Great Assembly (b.Bava Batra 15a).[7]

A number of psalms (Psalms 138; 146-149) are attributed to Haggai as seen in the textual traditions of the Greek Septuagint, Latin Vulgate, and Aramaic Peshitta.[8] They are probably indicative of the Temple worship that Haggai was responsible for helping restore.

Liberal examiners will actually concede some strong degree of reliability to the composition of Haggai, due to the specific dates mentioned in the text,[9] placing it sometime during the Persian period.

It is debated whether or not the Hebrew MT of Haggai is in relatively good condition, with some favoring it[10] and others not favoring it.[11] There are some significant additions as seen in the Greek LXX,[12] leading some to conclude that the Hebrew Vorlage behind the LXX may have been different in some places.[13]

The background behind the events of Haggai largely concern how the Temple reconstruction had ceased after completion of its foundation, with a period of about eighteen years having passed. The construction work had been delayed due to drought, a bad economy, and the self-interests of the people (1:6-11). Little interest was given to the Temple, as people were trying to rebuild their own lives and reclaim former holdings and property prior to the exile.[14] “The book contains reports of theologically based exhortations to undertake the work of reconstruction and discusses the central role of the Temple in the life of the community” (Jewish Study Bible).[15] Haggai tried to arouse the Jewish returnees to continue the work they were committed to.[16] It is important to consider that the returned exiles were likely those who had not fared well in Babylon, deciding to stay because of business ventures, and were from the poorer classes.[17]

The text of the Book of Haggai can be divided into two major parts: (1) the restoration of the Temple (1:1-15), and (2) oracles of encouragement (2:1-23). Themes seen in Haggai include the consequences of disobedience (1:6, 11; 2:16-17) and obedience (2:7-9, 19). When people take God and His House seriously, He will bless them and surround them with His Spirit (2:4-5). The major focus of ch. 2 is for the workers and laborers reconstructing the Temple to be encouraged to continue the work that they have committed themselves to, as a new era was emerging for God’s people.[18]

Some, often liberals, radically interpret the text as meaning that Haggai was a Messianic zealot who sought to cast off the foreign rulership of the Persians and install Zerubbabel as king,[19] but this is reading a great deal into his message. History largely demonstrates that the Persians were somewhat generous to the Jews,[20] wanting a stable empire. It is possible, though, that some instability in the Persian Empire led the Jews to ask questions about independence, formulating some Messianic ideas.[21] Haggai’s message is contemporary to Zechariah,[22] and the reign of Persia’s Darius I.

In the Jewish theological tradition, Haggai, along with Zechariah and Malachi, are the last of the Prophets, and the forerunners of the Sanhedrin.[23]

Haggai 2:9a, “The latter glory of this house will be greater than the former,” is often viewed as having distinct Messianic significance, with the expectation of a Coming One whose glory would fill the Second Temple. This occurred as the Second Temple was the scene of some of Yeshua’s ministry.[24]

There has presently been no significant Messianic engagement with the Book of Haggai. Haggai does have a profound message as it may relate to the current condition of the Messianic community, and as we consider the specifics of our mission and goals for the future. We do need encouragement to take on the challenges that God has presented before us. We have the responsibility as Messianics to build God’s House (1:8), as it were, meaning something that can last and bring glory to Him.

Bibliography

Alden, Robert L. “Haggai,” in EXP, 7:569-591.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Haggai,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1243-1248.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Haggai,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 421-426.

Harrison, R.K. “Haggai,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 944-948.

Fowler, Arthur B. “Haggai,” in NIDB, 410.

Meyers, Carol, and Eric M. Meyers. “Haggai, Book of,” in ABD, 3:20-23.

___________. “Haggai, Book of,” in EDB, pp 539-540.

Meyers, Eric. “Haggai,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1333-1336.

Neil, W. “Haggai,” in IDB, 2:509-511.

Rogerson, John W. “Haggai,” in ECB, pp 718-720.

Wolf. H. “Haggai,” in ISBE, 2:594-596.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Haggai

[1] W. Neil, “Haggai,” in IDB, 2:509; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 944; H. Wolf, “Haggai,” in ISBE, 2:594; Robert L. Alden, “Haggai,” in EXP, 7:571-572.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 945.

[3] Ehud ben Zvi, “Haggai,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1243.

[4] Carol Meyers and Eric M. Meyers, “Haggai, Book of,” in ABD, 3:20-21.

[5] John W. Rogerson, “Haggai,” in ECB, 718.

[6] Dillard and Longman, 423.

[7] “The Men of the Great Assembly wrote Ezekiel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Daniel, and the scroll of Esther” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[8] Neil, “Haggai,” in IDB, 2:509; Wolf, “Haggai,” in ISBE, 2:594; Alden, in EXP, 7:571.

[9] ben Zvi, in Jewish Study Bible, 1243; Rogerson, in ECB, 718.

[10] Wolf, “Haggai,” in ISBE, 2:595.

[11] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 948.

[12] Alden, in EXP, 7:575.

[13] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 948.

[14] Dillard and Longman, 422.

[15] ben Zvi, in Jewish Study Bible, 1243.

[16] Wolf, “Haggai,” in ISBE, 2:594.

[17] Neil, “Haggai,” in IDB, 2:510.

[18] Meyers and Meyers, “Haggai, Book of,” in ABD, 3:21.

[19] Ibid., 3:22-23.

[20] Arthur B. Fowler, “Haggai,” in NIDB, 410; Alden, in EXP, 7:570-571.

[21] Dillard and Longman, 423.

[22] Meyers and Meyers, “Haggai, Book of,” in ABD, 3:21.

[23] ben Zvi, in Jewish Study Bible, 1244.

[24] Alden, in EXP, 7:575.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON HAGGAI:

1. What critical role was the Prophet Haggai called to play among the Southern Kingdom exiles having returned?

2. Do you believe today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Haggai seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON HAGGAI’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Haggai:

BOOK OF ZECHARIAH

Approximate date: 520-400s B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate, some Left); 400s-100s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: post-exile period of sin, coupled by national discouragement

Author(s): Zechariah (Right, some conservative-moderate); Zechariah and/or anonymous other(s) (some conservative moderate); “Proto-Zechariah” and “Deutero-Zechariah” (Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in Judah (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites and Jerusalemites

People:

Zechariah (son of Berekiah, son of Iddo), Joshua (high priest), Satan, Zerubbabel

People mentioned:

Darius, “Daughter of Babylon,” “Daughter of Zion,” Heldai, Tobijah, Jedaiah, Josiah (son of Zephaniah), Hen (son of Zephaniah), Sarezer, Regem-Melech, Philistines, Jebusites, Ephraim, Greece, Joseph, Ephraimites, David, house of Nathan, house of Levi, clan of Shimei, Uzziah

Places:

Judah, Jerusalem, Bethel, Gilead, Lebanon, Nile, Assyria, Egypt, Bashan, Jordan, Mount of Olives, Azel

Places mentioned:

Babylon, land of Hadrach, Damascus, Hamath, Tyre, Sidon, Ashkelon, Gaza, Ekron, Haddad Rimmon, Megiddo

Key Themes:

Zechariah calls the people to turn from their sins toward the Lord / horsemen are sent by God to go about the whole Earth / God describes how He will one day live among His people who have been scattered / the high priest Joshua is given clean clothes and a turban in a vision / the golden lampstand and olive trees represent the mission of God’s people to serve Him in the Earth / a flying scroll goes out, condemning the people of high sins / a basket with a woman representing “wickedness” is sent to Babylon / four chariots sent by God go out into the Earth / one named “Branch” will build the Temple and sit on the throne of Israel / some men ask if fasting in the fifth month is appropriate, and are told instead to not oppress others / the Lord promises that the city of Jerusalem will be restored / the Lord will judge the enemies surrounding Israel / the Lord promises complete defeat of Israel’s enemies when its King comes / the Lord Himself will miraculously save Israel / the Lord describes a salvation of Israel involving both Judah and scattered Ephraim / Israel will be judged as a flock intended for slaughter / God promises to judge all of those who come against Jerusalem / corporate Israel will mourn over the pierced One / Jerusalem will be purged from idolatry and false prophets / God’s Shepherd will be struck by the sword / the Lord will physically arrive at the Mount of Olives (at the Second Coming) / those who oppose the Lord will be consumed / in the Messianic Age all nations will come to Jerusalem to regularly celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles

Key Scriptures: Zechariah 1:4; 2:10-11; 4:11-15; 6:12-13; 7:8-12; 8:1-3, 20-23; 9:9-10; 10:6-12; 12:1-5, 10-11; 13:1-2; 14:3-5, 16-17 / Zechariah’s night visions and words of encouragement (1:1-8:23); Messages after the completion of the Temple (9:1-14:21)

Theological Summary: Zechariah, just like Haggai, was a post-exilic prophet and one of his contemporaries (Ezra 5:1; 6:14), and it should not be surprising that there are parallels between the two books that bear their names. Zechariah returned to the Land of Israel with the exiles from Babylon, and succeeded Iddo, his grandfather, as leader of a priestly family (1:1, 7; cf. Nehemiah 12:10-16). Zechariah’s name (Heb. Zekaryah) means “the LORD remembers,” and many extrapolate this as relating to God’s covenant faithfulness demonstrated in the text that bears his name. The Book of Zechariah, though, unlike Haggai, forms a much broader period of time. Zechariah is the longest of the Minor Prophets.

Conservatives generally hold to some kind of unity for the Book of Zechariah, following Jewish tradition which has historically held to a unified composition. Zechariah first prophesied shortly after Haggai (1:1-6), which was followed by several prophetic visions (1:7-6:15). It is significant that two dates are given in the text of Zechariah: the second year of Darius Hystaspis (1:1, 7), and the fourth year of his reign (7:1). This places at least part of the Book of Zechariah in 520-518 B.C.E.,[1] even though it is most likely that Zechariah’s prophetic ministry continued. It is notable that there are a few conservatives who, while not necessarily being against the unity of Zechariah, would make note of the differences between the “first section” (chs. 1-8) and the “second section” (chs. 9-14) of the text.[2] They would still argue that it is most important that interpreters look at the final form of the text to draw conclusions.

Liberals make a stark divide in the Book of Zecharaiah, breaking the text between chs. 1-8 and chs. 9-14, classifying them as “Proto-Zechariah” and “Deutero-Zechariah.” It is argued that chs. 1-8 depict the immediate future of the Jewish community, and chs. 9-14 depicts the future, indicating that these are from two different prophets.[3] It is proposed that chs. 1-8 and chs. 9-14 are of different literary genres, employing different imagery, thus requiring different authors; some early propositions attributed chs. 9-14 to Jeremiah.[4] Liberals are not agreed among themselves whether chs. 9-14 actually make up a unity, or could be divided further.[5] Liberals are forced to conclude that “Deutero-Zechariah” was anonymous.[6]

One of the main propositions for chs. 9-14 coming from a different prophet or source is often argued on the basis that “Javan” or Greece (9:13) is presented as a power in the Ancient Near East, not Persia, thus “necessitating” chs. 9-14 as being composed sometime in the 100s B.C.E. Concurrent with this is the idea that chs. 9-14 explains the rise of Alexander of the Great and the military actions of the Maccabees. This late dating of chs. 9-14 assumes that Greece was not any kind of power or unknown by the 500s, which cannot be sustained in comparison with other Tanach passages (Isaiah 66:19; Ezekiel 27:13, 19).[7]

There is no evidence in tradition that chs. 9-14 were ever considered separate from the text of chs. 1-8.[8] Conservatives do recognize the difference in style between chs. 1-8 and chs. 9-14, but do not believe that this requires two different “Zechariahs.”[9] There are even those who believe in the division of Proto- and Deutero-Zechariah who must say, “It has to be admitted that none of [our] reasons offers conclusive proof that Zechariah should be divided into…sections” (ECB).[10] Many conservatives believe that the differences in the Book of Zechariah proposed by liberals are artificial.[11]

No major difficulties exist with the Hebrew text of Zechariah,[12] even though the Greek LXX may offer a better reading in some places.[13]

The events of Zechariah are set in the early years of Darius I (522-486 B.C.E.), also covered in Ezra 5-6. The chief purpose of Zechariah was to rebuke the returned Jews to rebuild the Temple (4:8-10). If the people would return to the Lord, then He would return to them (1:7-6:8). The people of Judah needed to be riveted out of their procrastination, and give themselves wholly to the purpose of rebuilding their community and Temple.

A theme seen throughout Zechariah is that God is true to His covenant promises. Jerusalem is depicted as playing a crucial role in the future of God’s Kingdom. Zechariah takes on Messianic significance, depicting a coming One who will defeat the enemies of Israel (9:9-17; 14:1-21). Israel’s restoration would include the regathering of His scattered people (10:1-11:3), with God’s ultimate victory over those who reject Him (12:1-9) as the world recognizes His universal kingship (2:13; 6:1-8; 14:16-21).

Many of the themes in Zechariah are applied directly to Yeshua the Messiah and His ministry (Mark 14:27 and Zechariah 13:7; Matthew 27:9 and Zechariah 11:12-13; John 19:37 and Zechariah 12:10; John 12:15 and Zechariah 9:9).[14] Some consider Zechariah to be among the most Messianic texts in all of the Tanach.[15] Other themes seen in Zechariah are expanded upon in the Book of Revelation,[16] and are directly applied to Yeshua as being the One who defeats Israel’s enemies and comes to reign over the whole world.

In the Jewish tradition, Zechariah 14:9 is used in the Aleinu prayer, Zechariah 14:1-12 is the Haftarah used for the first day of Sukkot, and Zechariah 2:14-4:7 is read on the first Sabbath of Chanukah and the Haftarah for Beha’alot’kha (Numbers 8:1-12:16).[17]

Zechariah is an encouraging book for the downhearted, who believe that God has left them or that their actions are indifferent. There is some limited Messianic engagement with Zechariah, but most often only with its prophecies pertaining to the Last Days. The overall message of Zechariah, of shaking God’s people out of their laziness, is not something widely emphasized in today’s Messianic community. Zechariah, just like Haggai, could definitely be a text to inspire us to make the progress that God desires us to make.

Bibliography

Barabas, Steven. “Zechariah, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 1083-1084.

Barker, Kenneth L. “Zechariah,” in EXP, 7:595-697.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Zechariah,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1249-1267.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Zechariah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 427-436.

Fensham, F.C. “Zechariah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1183-1186.

Hanson, P.D. “Zechariah, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 982-983.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Zechariah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 949-957.

Higginson, R.E. “Zechariah,” in NBCR, pp 786-803.

Meyers Carol, and Eric Meyers. “Zechariah 1-8,” in ABD, 6:1061-1065.

Meyers, Eric. “Zechariah,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1337-1350.

Neil, W. “Zechariah, Book of,” in IDB, 4:943-947.

Petersen, David L. “Zechariah 9-14,” in ABD, 6:1065-1068.

Redditt, Paul L. “Zechariah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 1412-1413.

Rogerson, John W. “Zechariah,” in ECB, pp 721-729.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Zechariah

[1] Dillard and Longman, 429.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 954-956.

[3] W. Neil, “Zechariah, Book of,” in IDB, 4:944-947; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 951-954; David L. Petersen, “Zechariah 9-14,” in ABD, 6:1061-1064.

[4] Kenneth L. Barker, “Zechariah,” in EXP, 7:596.

[5] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 950.

[6] Paul L. Redditt, “Zechariah, Book of,” in EDB, 1413.

[7] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 952-953; Barker, in EXP, 7:597.

[8] R.E. Higginson, “Zechariah,” in NBCR, 787.

[9] Steven Barabas, “Zechariah, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 1083-1084.

[10] John W. Rogerson, “Zechariah,” in ECB, 721.

[11] Dillard and Longman, pp 430-431.

[12] F.C. Fensham, “Zechariah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1185.

[13] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 956-957.

[14] Cf. Dillard and Longman, 436.

[15] Barker, in EXP, 7:599.

[16] Higginson, in NBCR, 788; Fensham, “Zechariah, Book of,” in ISBE, 4:1186.

[17] Cf. Ehud ben Zvi, “Zechariah,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1250.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON ZECHARIAH:

1. What themes, ideas, or imagery seen in Zechariah struck you as being the most important or significant?

2. What parallels could you see in Zechariah, and concepts directly discussed in the Gospels relating to the life of Yeshua the Messiah?

3. How prominent is the judgment and restoration of all Israel to the Book of Zechariah?

4. How important do you believe it is to comprehend Zechariah, in order to have a fuller understanding of Biblical eschatology?

5. Do you believe today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Zechariah seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON ZECHARIAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Zechariah:

BOOK OF MALACHI

Approximate date: 460s B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate, some Left); 400s-100s B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: instability following the reconstruction of the Second Temple

Author(s): Malachi (Right, some conservative-moderate); an unnamed messenger (some conservative moderate, Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): somewhere in Judah (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites and Jerusalemites

People:

Malachi, Judah (people)

People mentioned:

Jacob, Esau, Edom, Levi, Moses, Elijah

Places:

Israel, Jerusalem

Key Themes:

the Lord says that He loves Jacob, but hates Esau, describing His punishment upon Edom / Malachi rebukes the priests who bring substandard offerings before the Lord / the Lord says He will punish the priests if they do not heed His ways / Malachi declares that Judah has broken faith with God via intermarriage with pagans / Malachi says that a day will come when the people are properly refined / God testifies that He has an unchanging character, unlike those who defraud and rob from Him via their offerings / those who fear God and obey Him will be spared from His punishment / when God’s punishment is enacted, evil persons will be set “afire” / the Lord asks His people to remember the Torah of Moses / the Lord says that Elijah will come before the day of His fierce judgment

Key Scriptures: Malachi 1:2-5, 7-8, 12-13; 2:7-9, 16; 3:1-4, 6-7; 4:1-2, 4-5 / The sinful priests (1:1-2:9); The sinful people (2:10-3:15); The faithful few (3:16-4:6)

Theological Summary: The name Malachi (Heb. Malaki) means “My messenger.” Some have been tempted to believe that the title of this book is generic, as malaki is rendered in the Greek LXX as angelou autou or “His messenger” (IDB).[1] The prophecies of Malachi appear in the period following the reconstruction of the Temple in 516 B.C.E., and the return of Nehemiah to Persia in 433 B.C.E. (cf. Nehemiah 13:6). When Nehemiah returned, the Jews had fallen back into sins such as breaking the Sabbath, intermarrying with foreigners, and the priesthood was corrupt and not performing its duties ably.[2] These are the same sins condemned by Malachi (1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11). Many lean toward Malachi and Nehemiah being contemporaries, possibly with Malachi’s prophetic ministry occurring between Nehemiah’s departure to Persia and his return to Jerusalem. Most interpreters point to Malachi being written during the Persian period. Nothing is known in the Biblical record of Malachi, behind this as some kind of name or designation.

No specific date is given in the text of Malachi, yet it is clearly post-exilic,[3] with specific supports for this dating inferred from the text.[4] John Calvin believed that the “messenger” was actually Ezra the Scribe, whereas historically the Church Fathers followed Jewish tradition in ascribing Malachi’s prophecies to a real prophet named Malachi.[5] The debate over the name of Malachi as “my messenger” led some throughout Jewish and Christian history to support a view that this is not a proper name, and that another individual, anonymous or otherwise, was this messenger.[6] Most scholars, conservative or liberal, have maintained some kind of unity for the Book of Malachi.[7] It is notable that Rabbinic tradition attributed that those of the Great Synagogue had the ultimate responsibility for collecting and editing the prophetic books (b.Bava Batra 14b).[8] The Talmud classifies Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi all as three separate Prophets (b.Yoma 9b; b.Sukkah 44a; b.Rosh Hashanah 19b; b.Megillah 3a).

Some liberals propose that the Book of Malachi is the third in a set of prophecies added on to the prophecies of so-called Deutero-Zechariah.[9] Yet, it is notable that not all liberals are united around the idea of Malachi being something other than a personal name. Jewish liberals, in particular, do commonly assert that Malachi was a personal name, even though there are attestations in Rabbinic literature of Malachi being Ezra (b.Megillah 15a).[10]

The Hebrew MT of Malachi is in relatively good condition, although the Greek LXX does add some interpretive extrapolations. The Latin Vulgate actually follows the Hebrew more closely. Some expressions seen in Malachi are difficult to translate.[11]

Major themes expounded upon in Malachi are how God as the Great King (1:14) will judge His people (3:1-5; 4:1), but also restore them (3:6-12; 4:2). The message of Malachi emphasizing the certainty of God’s judgment can be seen in how the Prophets’ expectation of Israel being restored had not been fulfilled. Uncontent with waiting on the Lord, His people fell back into their same old sinful patterns.[12] Malachi rebukes the people for doubting God’s love (1:2-5) and the poor actions of the priests (1:6-2:9). God will judge His own people first (3:5), and the only reason why God has not destroyed Israel is because of His covenant faithfulness (3:6). The people cannot be restored and experience His blessing unless they repent (3:6-12). A great deal of Malachi is presented in a question-and-answer style of format,[13] with both the people and God asking questions of one another. The Book of Malachi calls the people of God to properly reform themselves.[14]

Malachi is the last of the Prophets (Nevi’im) in the Jewish and Christian book order of the Tanach, and it is also the last book in the Christian book order of the Old Testament. It is notable that the verses marked 4:1-6 in Christian Bibles simply continue as 3:19-24 in Jewish Bibles. Malachi 1:1-2:7 is read as the Haftarah selection for Toldot (Genesis 25:19-28:9).

The Apostolic Scriptures appropriate some important themes from the Book of Malachi,[15] notably including a reference to the coming of John the Baptist (3:1; cf. Matthew 11:10).

There is presently no significant Messianic engagement with the Book of Malachi. While verses from Malachi (4:4) may often be quoted as “sound bytes” to encourage people to follow the Torah, the overall message of God’s messenger is largely not understood or is under-appreciated. Many of today’s Messianics believe we are in an hour of restoration, yet when it does not come on the timetable that many are expecting, will we fall into the same pattern as the Jews depicted in the text? Let us hope not, and heed Malachi’s message of repentance, patiently waiting for God to perform His complete redemption of the Earth. In a similar manner, let us remember that much of today’s Church seems to have reached a plateau, thinking that since so much has been accomplished for God, no new heights can be reached. Too many modern Christians have fallen into the same trap of Malachi’s original audience.

Bibliography

Adamson, James T.H. “Malachi,” in NBCR, pp 804-809.

Alden, Robert L. “Malachi,” in EXP, 7:701-725.

ben Zvi, Ehud. “Malachi,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1268-1274.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Malachi,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 437-442.

Graybill, John B. “Malachi,” in NIDB, pp 615-616.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Malachi,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 958-962.

Hill, Andrew E. “Malachi, Book of,” in ABD, 4:478-485.

Neil, W. “Malachi,” in IDB, 3:228-232.

O’Brien, Julia M. “Malachi,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1351-1355.

Redditt, Paul L. “Malachi, Book of,” in EDB, pp 848-849.

Smith, G.V. “Malachi,” in ISBE, 3:226-228.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Malachi

[1] W. Neil, “Malachi,” in IDB, 3:229.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 959-960.

[3] James T.H. Adamson, “Malachi,” in NBCR, 804; John B. Graybill, “Malachi,” in NIDB, 616; Andrew E. Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in ABD, 4:479.

[4] G.V. Smith, “Malachi,” in ISBE, 3:226.

[5] Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in ABD, 4:478.

[6] Smith, “Malachi,” in ISBE, 3:226; Robert L. Alden, “Malachi,” in EXP, 7:702.

[7] Smith, “Malachi,” in ISBE, 3:226.

[8] “And said R. Yohanan, ‘He was the first of the group of four prophets who prophesied at that time: Hosea, Isaiah, Amos, and Micah.’ So should not Hosea come first? Well, since his prophesies are written down along with those of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, and since Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi are designated as the conclusion of prophecy, he is reckoned along with them. So why not write out his prophecy on its own and put it first? Well, his scroll is so small that if copied on its own it might get lost” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

Cf. Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in ABD, 4:485.

[9] Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in ABD, 4:478.

[10] “It is learned: Said R. Joshua ben Qorhah: Malachi is Ezra. And the sages say: Malachi is his [proper] name. Said Rav Nahman [DS: + bar Yitzhaq]: It makes sense according to the one who said ‘Malachi is Ezra,’ as is written regarding the prophecy of Malachi, ‘Judah has rebelled, and abominations have been done in Israel and in Jerusalem, for Judah has desecrated the beloved sanctuary of God, and has taken the daughter of a foreign god’ (Mal. 2:11)” (b.Megillah 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[11] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 961-962; Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in ABD, 4:480.

[12] Adamson, in NBCR, 804; Smith, “Malachi,” in ISBE, 3:228.

[13] Julia M. O’Brien, “Malachi,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1351.

[14] Ehud ben Zvi, “Malachi,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1268-1269.

[15] Dillard and Longman, 442.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON MALACHI:

1. How serious was it for God’s priests to give Him insufficient and second-rate offerings?

2. According to Malachi, what will happen on the Day of the LORD? How is certain symbolism or prophecy viewed in the Gospels as foreshadowing the ministry of Yeshua the Messiah (3:1; cf. Matthew 11:10; Mark 1:2; Luke 7:27)?

3. Why do you think God calls the people to remember the Torah (4:4)? To what extent is this (4:6) happening via the growth of today’s Messianic movement?

4. Do you believe today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Malachi seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON MALACHI’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Malachi:

KETUVIM

WRITINGS

BOOK OF PSALMS

Approximate date: 1400s B.C.E. to 500s (Right, conservative-moderate; Left)

Time period: varied throughout the history of Ancient Israel

Author: various authors (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Location of author: varied locations due to varied authorship

Target audience and their location: people of Israel, later people of Judah and Southern Kingdom exiles (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

People:

David, Jeduthun (director of music), sons of Korah, Solomon, Asaph, Heman the Ezrahite, Ethan the Ezrahite, Moses

People mentioned:

Absalom, Cush (a Benjamite), Jacob, Saul, Abimelech, Abraham, Nathan, Bathsheba, Doeg the Edomite, Ziphites, Philistines, Joab, Edomites, Jesse, Ham, Ishmaelites, Hagrites, Lot, Sisera, Jabin, Oreb, Zeeb, Zeba, Zalmuna, Aaron, Dathan, Abiram, Baal of Peor (deity), Melchizedek, Sihon, Amorites, Og

Places:

Zion, Israel, Bashan, Lebanon, Sirion,[1] Ophir, Tyre, Zaphon, Tarshish, Jerusalem (Salem), Gath, Aram Naharaim, Aram Zobah, Valley of Salt, Shechem, Valley of Succoth, Gilead, Manasseh, Ephraim, Judah, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Sinai, Zalmon, Egypt, Cush, Sheba, Seba, region of Zoan, Shiloh, Gebal, Ammon, Amalek, Assyria, Midian, Kishon (river), Endor, Valley of Baca, “Rahab” (Egypt),[2] Babylon, Tabor, Hermon, Red Sea, Meribah, Massah, Canaan, Meshech, Kedar, Negev, Ephrathah, Jaar

Key Themes:

The Two Ways (Psalm 1) / God’s Promise to His Anointed (Psalm 2) / Trust in God Under Adversity (Psalm 3) / Confident Plea for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 4) / Trust in God for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 5) / Prayer for Recovery from Grave Illness (Psalm 6) / Plea for Help against Persecutors (Psalm 7) / Divine Majesty and Human Dignity (Psalm 8) / God’s Power and Justice (Psalm 9) / Prayer for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 10) / Song of Trust in God (Psalm 11) / Plea for Help in Evil Times (Psalm 12) / Prayer for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 13) / Denunciation of Godlessness (Psalm 14) / Who Shall Abide in God’s Sanctuary? (Psalm 15) / Song of Trust and Security in God (Psalm 16) / Prayer for Deliverance from Persecutors (Psalm 17) / Royal Thanksgiving for Victory (Psalm 18) / God’s Glory in Creation and the Torah (Psalm 19) / Prayer for Victory (Psalm 20) / Thanksgiving for Victory (Psalm 21) / Plea for Deliverance from Suffering and Hostility (Psalm 22) / The Divine Shepherd (Psalm 23) / Entrance into the Temple (Psalm 24) / Prayer for Guidance and Deliverance (Psalm 25) / Plea for Justice and Declaration of Righteousness (Psalm 26) / Triumphant Song of Confidence (Psalm 27) / Prayer for Help and Thanksgiving for It (Psalm 28) / The Voice of God in a Great Storm (Psalm 29) / Thanksgiving for Recovery from Great Illness (Psalm 30) / Prayer and Praise for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 31) / The Joy of Forgiveness (Psalm 32) / The Greatness and Goodness of God (Psalm 33) / Praise for Deliverance from Trouble (Psalm 34) / Prayer for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 35) / Human Wickedness and Divine Goodness (Psalm 36) / Exhortation to Patience and Trust (Psalm 37) / A Penitent Sufferer’s Plea for Healing (Psalm 38) / Prayer for Wisdom and Forgiveness (Psalm 39) / Thanksgiving for Deliverance and Prayer for Help (Psalm 40) / Assurance of God’s Help and a Plea for Healing (Psalm 41) / Longing for God and His Help in Distress (Psalm 42) / Prayer to God in Time of Trouble (Psalm 43) / National Lament and Prayer for Help (Psalm 44) / Ode for a Royal Wedding (Psalm 45) / God’s Defense of His City and People (Psalm 46) / God’s Rule over the Nations (Psalm 47) / The Glory and Strength of Zion (Psalm 48) / The Folly of Trust in Riches (Psalm 49) / The Acceptable Sacrifice (Psalm 50) / Prayer for Cleansing and Pardon (Psalm 51) / Judgment on the Deceitful (Psalm 52) / Denunciation of Godlessness (Psalm 53) / Prayer for Vindication (Psalm 54) / Complaint About a Friend’s Treachery (Psalm 55) / Trust in God under Persecution (Psalm 56) / Praise and Assurance under Persecution (Psalm 57) / Prayer for Vengeance (Psalm 58) / Prayer for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 59) / Prayer for National Victory after Defeat (Psalm 60) / Assurance of God’s Protection (Psalm 61) / Song of Trust in God Alone (Psalm 62) / Comfort and Assurance in God’s Presence (Psalm 63) / Prayer for Protection from Enemies (Psalm 64) / Thanksgiving for Earth’s Bounty (Psalm 65) / Praise for God’s Goodness to Israel (Psalm 66) / The Nations Called to Praise God (Psalm 67) / Praise and Thanksgiving (Psalm 68) / Prayer for Deliverance from Persecution (Psalm 69) / Prayer for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 70) / Prayer for Lifelong Protection and Help (Psalm 71) / Prayer for Guidance and Support for the King (Psalm 72) / Plea for Relief from Oppressors (Psalm 73) / Plea for Help in Time of National Humiliation (Psalm 74) / Thanksgiving for God’s Wondrous Deeds (Psalm 75) / Israel’s God—Judge of All the Earth (Psalm 76) / God’s Mighty Deeds Recalled (Psalm 77) / God’s Goodness and Israel’s Ingratitude (Psalm 78) / Plea for Mercy for Jerusalem (Psalm 79) / Prayer for Israel’s Restoration (Psalm 80) / God’s Appeal to Stubborn Israel (Psalm 81) / A Plea for Justice (Psalm 82) / Prayer for Judgment on Israel’s Foes (Psalm 83) / The Joy of Worship in the Temple (Psalm 84) / Prayer for the Restoration of God’s Favor (Psalm 85) / Supplication for Help against Enemies (Psalm 86) / The Joy of Living in Zion (Psalm 87) / Prayer for Help in Despondency (Psalm 88) / God’s Covenant with David (Psalm 89) / God’s Eternity and Human Frailty (Psalm 90) / Assurance of God’s Protection (Psalm 91) / Thanksgiving for Vindication (Psalm 92) / The Majesty of God’s Rule (Psalm 93) / God the Avenger of the Righteous (Psalm 94) / A Call to Worship and Obedience (Psalm 95) / Praise to God Who Comes in Judgment (Psalm 96) / The Glory of God’s Reign (Psalm 97) / Praise the Judge of the World (Psalm 98) / Praise to God for His Holiness (Psalm 99) / All Lands Summoned to Praise God (Psalm 100) / A Sovereign’s Pledge of Integrity and Justice (Psalm 101) / Prayer to the Eternal King for Help (Psalm 102) / Thanksgiving for God’s Goodness (Psalm 103) / God the Creator and Provider (Psalm 104) / God’s Faithfulness to Israel (Psalm 105) / A Confession of Israel’s Sins (Psalm 106) / Thanksgiving for Deliverance from Many Troubles (Psalm 107) / Praise and Prayer for Victory (Psalm 108) / Prayer for Vindication and Vengeance (Psalm 109) / Assurance of Victory for God’s Priest-King (Psalm 110) / Praise for God’s Wonderful Works (Psalm 111) / Blessings of the Righteous (Psalm 112) / God the Helper of the Needy (Psalm 113) / God’s Wonders at the Exodus (Psalm 114) / The Impotence of Idols and the Greatness of God (Psalm 115) / Thanksgiving for Recovery from Illness (Psalm 116) / Universal Call to Worship (Psalm 117) / A Song of Victory (Psalm 118) / The Glories of God’s Torah (Psalm 119) / Prayer for Deliverance from Slanderers (Psalm 120) / Assurance of God’s Protection (Psalm 121) / Song of Praise and Prayer for Jerusalem (Psalm 122) / Supplication for Mercy (Psalm 123) / Thanksgiving for Israel’s Deliverance (Psalm 124) / The Security of God’s People (Psalm 125) / A Harvest of Joy (Psalm 126) / God’s Blessings in the Home (Psalm 127) / The Happy Home of the Faithful (Psalm 128) / Prayer for the Downfall of Israel’s Enemies (Psalm 129) / Waiting for Divine Redemption (Psalm 130) / Song of Quiet Trust (Psalm 131) / The Eternal Dwelling of God in Zion (Psalm 132) / The Blessedness of Unity (Psalm 133) / Praise in the Night (Psalm 134) / Praise for God’s Goodness and Might (Psalm 135) / God’s Work in Creation and in History (Psalm 136) / Lament Over the Destruction of Jerusalem (Psalm 137) / Thanksgiving and Praise (Psalm 138) / The Inescapable God (Psalm 139) / Prayer for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 140) / Prayer for Preservation from Evil (Psalm 141) / Prayer for Deliverance from Persecutors (Psalm 142) / Prayer for Deliverance from Enemies (Psalm 143) / Prayer for National Deliverance and Security (Psalm 144) / The Greatness and Goodness of God (Psalm 145) / Praise for God’s Help (Psalm 146) / Praise for God’s Care for Jerusalem (Psalm 147) / Praise for God’s Universal Glory (Psalm 148) / Praise for God’s Goodness to Israel (Psalm 149) / Praise for God’s Surpassing Greatness (Psalm 150)

Key Scriptures: Psalm 119:105; 150:6 / Book One (1:1-41:13); Book Two (42:1-72:20); Book Three (73:1-89:52); Book Four (90:1-106:48); Book Five (107:1-150:6)

Theological Summary: Psalms is the longest book in the Bible, and is frequently one of the most examined. Psalms differs substantially from any other book of Scripture, as some modern theologians have described it as Ancient Israel’s “hymnbook.” This is certainly justified as Psalms is composed of various songs, prayers, laments, cries of thankfulness, and pleas for vindication—all of which were used within in the worship of Ancient Israel. Psalms actually consists as a collection of five groupings of material: Book One (Psalms 1-41), Book Two (Psalms 42-72), Book Three (Psalms 73-89), Book Four (Psalms 90-106), and Book Five (Psalms 107-150), all of which are usually designated in most English Bibles.

The Hebrew title of Psalms is actually Tehellim, meaning “praises.” Our English title is derived from the Greek Psalmoi or “twangings [of harp strings]” (Payne, NIDB).[3] This is a good indication that many of the psalms were intended to be recited or sung to music. Psalms is placed first among the Writings in the Jewish order of the Tanach, and among the Wisdom books in the Christian theological tradition. Both Jewish and Christian theology generally give a very high place to the value of the Book of Psalms.

Psalms is an atraditional book of Scripture because not all the psalms were composed by a single author. Thirty-four psalms do not have postscripts identifying the composition. Seventy-four psalms in the Hebrew Masoretic tradition are afforded to David (with more attributed to him in the Greek Septuagint).[4] Other notable composers of psalms that are identified include: Asaph (70; 73-83), the sons of Korah (42-49; 84-85; 87-88), Moses (90), Solomon (127), Heman (88), and Ethan (89). It is suspected by some theologians that a few of these names may have been added later, surely something that is a debate in Biblical scholarship.[5] Notable for us to consider is that the Apostles ascribe Davidic authorship to Psalm 2 in Acts 4:25, which would otherwise be anonymous. Many commentators and teachers are unsure of what to use, and simply designate the default author to be the Psalmist or the Psalter.

The material seen in Psalms likely dates all the way from the Israelites’ Exodus from Egypt to the Babylonian Dispersion, a period of 800-1,000 years. Ancient evidence from Babylon, Egypt, and Ugarit all indicate important parallels in literary style and composition between the Psalms and other Ancient Near Eastern hymnody.[6] Jewish tradition in the Jerusalem Talmud divided Psalms into only 147 compositions (Shabbat 16),[7] even though Jewish Bibles today follow the more consistent 150 Psalm division. There is a slight difference among verse divisions between Jewish and Christian Bibles,[8] but nothing extremely significant. The material of Psalms in its more final form likely comes from the Third Century B.C.E., even though an Apocryphal Psalm 151 dating from the Second Century B.C.E. was found at Qumran. This psalm is considered canonical by sectors of the Eastern Orthodox Church[9] and can be found in many ecumenical study Bibles.

There is no “one” conservative or liberal position on the Book of Psalms today, as “the book as a whole and the individual psalms…were open to adaptation during the whole Old Testament period” (Dillard and Longman).[10] There are, however, some important things to keep in mind when examining conservative and liberal examinations of Psalms.

Many conservatives feel that Psalms was assembled in its final form after the Babylonian exile, mostly incorporating pre-exilic material.[11] Many liberals, in contrast, consider Psalms to have been composed entirely after the exile, including the writing of many of the psalms themselves.[12] Conservatives widely accept the designated authorship of the individual psalms, whereas liberals widely doubt them,[13] although there can never be complete certainty about the authorship of every single psalm.[14] A great deal of debate on authorship surrounds the meaning of the Hebrew proposition l’, as it can mean “by,” “of,” “about,” and “for” (Dillard and Longman).[15] Considering this, was a psalm by a particular person, about that person, or compiled for that person?

Liberals see some psalms dominated by usage of the Divine Name YHWH, and others using Elohim, which they may attribute to the so-called J and E sources[16] used in their JEDP documentary hypothesis of the Pentateuch (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis), and this decidedly affects their interpretation of certain passages.[17] Some liberals have assumed that the bulk of the psalms date from the Maccabean era,[18] perhaps calling Psalms the “hymnbook of the Second Temple” (Harrison)[19] and/or that their ideas represent religious concepts appropriated during the Jewish exile to Babylon.[20]

The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Psalms generally reflects a strong tradition of preservation. Necessary comparison with the Dead Sea Scrolls on some Messianic passages such as Psalm 22:16 is required from time to time, where the DSS and Greek Septuagint likely reflect a more proper rendering.[21] Harrison notes that on the whole “during the process of transmission, the MT is incomparably superior to that of the LXX, which preserved some curious readings.”[22] More Greek copies of Psalms in the LXX are available than any other Septuagintal documents.[23] In consulting the Septuagint version of Psalms one must also consider divergent liturgical traditions between the Judean and Diaspora Jewish communities,[24] and that the LXX division is slightly different than that found in the MT.[25]

There are a variety of different types of psalms, and classifying psalms according to a particular genre can frequently help us in proper interpretation. Psalms requires the interpreter to focus careful attention on its literary devices. Close observation and rereading is necessary for adequate exegesis[26] and for noticing poetic forms or meter.[27] These aspects of the psalms give us important pictures into the varied social lives of the people of Israel.[28] Some psalms are set against historical backdrops, while others are just songs of praise, petitions before God, or laments with no specific background to be deduced.[29]

German theologian Hermann Gunkel helped spearhead the idea that it may be futile for interpreters to try to figure out the historical background circumstances of every single psalm, and that it is more important for us to figure out its central idea.[30] “Gunkel perceived that the Psalms did not originate as literary works, but arose in worship” (IDBSup),[31] something that can truly be said for a great many of the psalms. He divided Psalms into five distinct Gattungen or literary types: hymns, communal laments, royal psalms, individual laments, and individual psalms of thanksgiving. Scholars today will often provide more categories and subcategories for the Book of Psalms.[32] In spite of Gunkel’s being a liberal,[33] his categorization of Psalms has been adopted by many conservative theologians.[34] More contemporary examination of Psalms is sometimes guided by some kind of rhetorical criticism.[35]

Some broad themes to be considered when reading through Psalms are God’s majesty, our required relationship with God, a contrasting of the wicked and righteous, and the promise of God to send a Messiah-deliverer.[36] Readers of the psalms can examine themes as being a response to God, an invitation to worship, or simple Scripture to reflect upon. Psalms is definitely concerned with Heilsgeschichte or salvation history.

Psalms features quite prominently in the teachings of Yeshua and theology of the Apostles. Psalms 2 and 110, in particular, are some of the most frequently quoted texts in the Apostolic Scriptures.[37] In addition to these, Psalms 16, 22, and 69 all profoundly affect our view of Yeshua’s Messiahship.[38] Psalms was used to explain the ministry of Yeshua, as well as His crucifixion, resurrection, exaltation, and present rule.[39]

Psalms features prominently in the Jewish liturgy of the siddur and in ritual Jewish prayer. Not all of the psalms are intended to be sung aloud.[40] Many of the psalms, or pieces of them, were used in praises and prayers offered to God in the Tabernacle/Temple service[41] and for other worship traditions. The application of Psalms as a distinct way to commune with God and experience His presence is almost infinite.

More than any other book of the Tanach, Psalms has greatly influenced Christian theology.[42] Luke 22:44 attributing Psalms as the most important book among the Writings has no doubt influenced this. Psalms teaches us about the great balance between God’s Law and God’s grace. Many Christian moves focused on intimacy between a person and God are focused around Psalms, and certainly a great number of Christian hymn writers have appropriated words from Psalms for centuries. Christian theologians today are recognizing the strong need to train pastors in the skills they need to properly teach from Psalms, lest we lose the treasure that they truly are.[43]

Messianics today are generally sound in their examination of most psalms, even though there is certainly room for some fine tuning and refinement. We can probably make greater consideration for the different types of psalms available, as well as for the wider historical period of a psalm (when an historical period is clearly identifiable or deducible from the text). One of the strides we can make improvement in is removing any theological interjections into Psalms relating to end-time speculation (like thinking that each psalm represents a year on God’s so-called “prophetical calendar.”) Reclaiming some of the worship of Psalms via liturgical prayer is something that should also not be ignored by today’s Messianics. It is also possible that a great amount of congregational preaching is missed because of an overemphasis on the Torah, and not enough emphasis on texts such as Psalms.

Each psalm represents its own unique little world that is just waiting for us to enter in and uncover it for its wonders.

Bibliography

Berlin, Adele, and Marc Zvi Brettler. “Psalms,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1280-1446.

Craven, Toni, and Walter Harrelson. “The Psalms,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 749-892.

Crenshaw, James L. “Psalms, Book of,” in EDB, pp 1093-1096.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Psalms,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 211-234.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Psalms,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 976-1007.

M’Caw, Leslie S., and J.A. Motyer. “The Psalms,” in NBCR, pp 446-547.

Hempel, J. “Psalms, Book of,” in IDB, 3:942-958.

Limberg, James. “Psalms, Book of,” in ABD, 5:522-536.

Payne, J. Barton. “Psalms, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 832-835.

Prinsloo, Willem S. “The Psalms,” in ECB, pp 364-436.

Ridderbos, N.H., and P.C. Craigie. “Psalms,” in ISBE, 3:1029-1040.

VanGemeren, Willem A. “Psalms,” in EXP, 5:3-880.

Westermann, C. “Psalms, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 705-710.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Psalms

[1] Or, Mount Hermon.

[2] Psalm 87:4.

[3] J. Barton Payne, “Psalms, Book of,” in NIDB, 832.

[4] N.H. Ridderbos and P.C. Craigie, “Psalms,” in ISBE, 3:1031.

[5] J. Hempel, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDB, 3:943-943.

[6] C. Westermann, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDBSup, 709; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 987-990; Payne, “Psalms, Book of,” in NIDB, 833; Ridderbos and Craigie, “Psalms,” in ISBE, 3:1039-1040.

[7] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 987.

[8] Hempel, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDB, 3:943.

[9] James Limberg, “Psalms, Book of,” in ABD, 5:524; Toni Craven and Walter Harrelson, “The Psalms,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 749; Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, “Psalms,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1280.

[10] Dillard and Longman, 213.

[11] Ridderbos and Craigie, “Psalms,” in ISBE, 3:1030.

[12] James L. Crenshaw, “Psalms, Book of,” in EDB, 1094.

[13] Berlin and Brettler, in Jewish Study Bible, 1282.

[14] Dillard and Longman, 214.

[15] Ibid., 215.

[16] Hempel, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDB, 3:943.

[17] Ibid., 3:955.

[18] Leslie S. M’Caw and J.A. Motyer, “The Psalms,” in NBCR, 446.

[19] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 976.

[20] Westermann, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDBSup, 705; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 995-996; Payne, “Psalms, Book of,” in NIDB, 835.

[21] Hempel, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDB, 3:944.

[22] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 999.

[23] Limberg, “Psalms, Book of,” in ABD, 5:523.

[24] Willem A. VanGemeren, “Psalms,” in EXP, 5:19.

[25] Crenshaw, “Psalms, Book of,” in EDB, 1093.

[26] M’Caw and Motyer, in NBCR, 447.

[27] Hempel, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDB, 3:944-954; VanGemeren, in EXP, 5:9-12; Limberg, “Psalms, Book of,” in ABD, 5:528-530.

[28] Ridderbos and Craigie, “Psalms,” in ISBE, 3:1033-1034.

[29] Dillard and Longman, 211.

[30] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 991-993; Payne, “Psalms, Book of,” in NIDB, 834; Ridderbos and Craigie, “Psalms,” in ISBE, 3:1034.

[31] Westermann, “Psalms, Book of,” in IDBSup, 705.

[32] Limberg, “Psalms, Book of,” in ABD, 5:531-534.

[33] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 983.

[34] Dillard and Longman, pp 219-225.

[35] Crenshaw, “Psalms, Book of,” in EDB, 1095.

[36] VanGemeren, in EXP, 5:15-18.

[37] Ridderbos and Craigie, “Psalms,” in ISBE, 3:1038.

[38] Dillard and Longman, 233.

[39] VanGemeren, in EXP, 5:8.

[40] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 986.

[41] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 980; Crenshaw, “Psalms, Book of,” in EDB, 1093.

[42] M’Caw and Motyer, in NBCR, 446; Payne, “Psalms, Book of,” in NIDB, 832.

[43] VanGemeren, in EXP, 5:6.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON PSALMS:

1. What really strikes you as unique in having just surveyed the Book of Psalms?

2. What singular psalm ministered to you in a special way? What singular psalm (that you had perhaps never seen before) really struck you as being important?

3. How interconnected is the Book of Psalms with both the Tanach and Apostolic Scriptures?

4. Please summarize the importance of the following psalms:

Psalm 8

Psalm 22

Psalm 90

Psalm 95

Psalm 119

5. What might the Book of Psalms teach today’s Messianic community about worship? Does it teach us anything about formal liturgy?

6. How significant did the Book of Psalms affect the theology and worldview of the Apostles?

REFLECTION ON PSALMS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Psalms:

BOOK OF PROVERBS

Approximate date: 900s B.C.E. (Right); 900s B.C.E. for composition of source material, 715-686 B.C.E. for redactions (conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: sometime during Israel’s monarchy, both the United and Divided Kingdom eras

Author: Solomon exclusively (Right); mostly Solomon with later redaction and addition (conservative-moderate); anonymous teachers (Left)

Location of author(s): Land of Israel or Jerusalem (Right, conservative-moderate); Land of Israel, Jerusalem, and/or Babylon (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel, later people of Judah (Right, conservative-moderate); Southern Kingdom returning or returned from Babylon (Left)

People:

Solomon, David, men of Hezekiah, Agur (son of Jakeh), Ithiel, Ucal, Lemuel

Places:

Israel, Judah

Places mentioned:

Egypt

Key Themes:

the purpose of Proverbs is stated / exhortations to embrace wisdom are issued / an emphasis on the supremacy of wisdom is seen / a warning against adultery is given / warnings against folly are seen / more warnings against adultery are given, along with warnings about an adulteress / a personified Wisdom contrast is seen between Wisdom and Folly / King Solomon issues his specific proverbs, which are largely sayings focused on no particular theme (10:1-22:16) / an extended list of sayings of the wise is seen (22:17-24:34) / more proverbs from King Solomon, copied by the men of Hezekiah, are issued (25:1-29:27) / sayings from Agur are issued (30:1-33) / an oracle from King Lemuel is recalled / an epilogue praising a virtuous wife is recited

Key Scriptures: Proverbs 1:7; 2:2-6; 3:5-7, 13-18; 5:20-23; 6:16-19; 8:32-36; 9:10-11; 25:2; 30:4-6; 31:8-9, 10-12 / Wisdom for Young Men (1:1-9:18); Wisdom for All People (10:1-24:34); Wisdom for the Leaders (25:1-31:31)

Theological Summary: The Book of Proverbs makes up the largest collection of wisdom sayings in canonical Scripture. Proverbs is a text that most people turn to when requiring advice so they can be guided in a proper way of living. Proverbs has important lessons to teach anyone, regardless of their age, gender, or social status.[1] Many of the admonitions that it includes orient the reader as a child being instructed by a teacher, often being parental in tone.[2] Proverbs embodies the essence of practical theology, seen in one of its first major admonitions: “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge” (1:7). Proverbs is intended to guide individuals to perform actions that are right, just, and pious,[3] and to be productive members of their communities.

The Hebrew title of Proverbs is Mishlei, derived from the verb mashal, which in the Hifil stem (casual action, active voice) can mean “to compare with” (HALOT).[4] Many theologians are keen to point out that mashal represents a wide variety of types of sayings and admonitions.[5] The Septuagint title for Proverbs is Paroimiai, followed by the Latin Vulgate’s Liber Proverbiorium. In the Jewish theological tradition, Proverbs is placed among the Writings between Psalms and Job, but in Christian tradition Proverbs is considered a Wisdom text along with Job and Ecclesiastes.

Traditionally, Proverbs has been the first of three books that are given Solomonic authorship. Songs of Songs is believed to have been composed early in Solomon’s life, Proverbs composed during his midlife, and Ecclesiastes composed in his late life (Song of Songs Rabbah §10). It is notable for us to consider today that there is no conservative consensus on Solomonic authorship for all three of these books (not to be confused with Solomonic involvement). “Most scholars who have studied the problem intensely have favored the historical nature of the Solomonic tradition to a greater or lesser degree, though some have been far from certain about it, and others have entertained the presence of legendary accretions” (Harrison).[6] Rabbinic tradition in the Talmud actually ascribes the composition of Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes to the men of Hezekiah (b.Bava Batra 15a).[7]

The general title that is given to this text is “The proverbs of Solomon the son of David” (1:1). Its author is designated by a specific name for at least some of the text, with Proverbs beginning with ascribed Solomonic authorship (chs. 1-24).[8] Standing against complete Solomonic authorship is the fact that 22:17 refers to a second author known by the description “the words of the wise,” followed in 24:23 with the same reference.[9] The “general view [of exclusive Solomonic authorship]…stands in need of some revision” (EXP),[10] “As with the question of Davidic authorship of certain psalms, there must always be some uncertainty as to the exact amount of the proverbial literature that may be said to be strictly Solomonic” (Harrison).[11] Chs. 25-29 are accredited to Solomon being copied by the men of Hezekiah in Judah (25:1). Ch. 30 is attributed to Agur son of Jakeh (30:1). 31:1-9 is attributed to King Lemuel.[12]

While most of Proverbs is attributed to Solomon, its words and sayings undoubtedly had to be collected and edited into a composite work. This work included an added prologue (1:1-7) and longer epilogue (31:10-31). Some of the discourses of interchange may have been added by a later redactor as well. As a consequence, Proverbs should be best understood as an anthology[13] with seven distinct sections, breaking at: 1:1; 10:1; 22:17; 24:23; 25:1; 30:1; and 31:1.

The bulk of Proverbs would have been written during the reign of Solomon during the Tenth Century B.C.E. Isaiah 29:14 makes reference to “the wisdom of their wise men,” possibly being some kind of grouping. Conservatives assert that Proverbs was probably edited in its final form in the Eighth-Seventh Centuries B.C.E., although some others believe that Proverbs reached its final form before the end of the Babylonian exile.[14]

Liberals deny any Solomonic involvement in the composition of Proverbs and often date Proverbs entirely to after the Babylonian exile[15] in a period when a large number of pseudonymous works were circulating.[16] While the proverbs attributed to Solomon are considered spurious, those attested to have been written by the men of Hezekiah are considered to be legitimate, pre-exilic sources,[17] although some liberal sources note that a few of the wisdom sayings of Proverbs do possibly originate from the royal court of Jerusalem.[18]

A standard liberal position on Proverbs has been, “Attributed (as a courtesy) to King Solomon, it was compiled and for the most part probably also composed during the fifth and fourth pre-Christian centuries by the masters who taught in academies for young men of the ‘better’ families” (IDB).[19] Liberals widely consider the wisdom of proverbs as being mostly, if not entirely, human. Likewise, a large number consider some sayings in Proverbs to be influenced by the latter Hellenistic era.[20] Ironically, the literature and concepts that Proverbs parallels[21] from ancient times often predates the liberal propositions by over a millennium.[22]

There are significant parallels between Proverbs and other Ancient Near Eastern works.[23] One of the major works that is considered in Proverbian scholarship are similarities seen with the Egyptian Wisdom of Amenemope/Amenophis[24] dating from the First Millennium B.C.E. This makes dating Proverbs’ material contemporary to Solomon quite plausible. Some of these parallels when pointed out have led liberals to confirm the veracity of at least some of the text.[25]

Also important for one to consider are that the words of the wise (22:17-24:22; 24:23-34) and the words of King Lemuel (31:1-9) may not be Israelite in origin.[26] This information incorporated into Proverbs could have come into Israel via some kind of royal contact.[27] Some modern interpreters have compared Proverbs to being like Poor Richard’s Almanac.[28]

The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Proverbs has been relatively well preserved, even though there are about twenty-five difficult readings in the MT.[29] These have been difficult to translate, but concurrent studies in Ugaritic have helped significantly with English translation. The most notable difference to consider between the MT and Septuagint is that the LXX version includes 130 more proverbs.[30] Conservatives have often attributed this to the LXX being based on an older Hebrew text, but liberals claim that this is evidence of Proverbs being composed after the Babylonian exile.

Sayings in Proverbs are not intended to be interpreted so much as “prophecies” as much as they are to be viewed as statements of practical reality. Proverbs is dominated by longwinded instruction sections and short sentence wisdom.[31] What one frequently finds in Proverbs is that a problem is given and a solution will be proposed in a pair of statements. Some of the remarks found in Proverbs are clearly figurative, with some others making comparisons and contrasts. The overarching theme of Proverbs is how to understand Earthly life and the human condition. Modern interpreters encourage people to read Proverbs as a whole, and for them to consider the context of certain sayings (both in the text itself and in history).

The personification of Wisdom in Proverbs is a noticeable and important feature,[32] especially as the various Judaisms of the Second-First Centuries B.C.E. appropriated concepts of Wisdom and applied them to their Messianism. It is also noticeable to consider how torah is sometimes applied to human teaching and not just Divine instruction. Some consider Proverbs to be a commentary on the Torah commands of love (Leviticus 19:18; Deuteronomy 6:5) and covenant faithfulness to God.

Proverbs was an important text for Yeshua and His Apostles,[33] as many allusions and teachings can often find their origin in this book. Many of the sayings of James the Just found in his epistle, in particular, undoubtedly find their root in Proverbs.

“Many Christians use the book of Proverbs as an anthology of ‘mottos’” (Dillard and Longman).[34] It is not uncommon to find that contemporary Christians often read through Proverbs once a month, focusing on one chapter a day. Proverbs has been an important book that has affected Christian attitudes toward contemporary society, and is generally favored among books of the Tanach.

Some of today’s Messianic handling of Proverbs is quite similar to that of evangelical Christians. However, there is certainly room for improvement as more teaching and exposition could certainly focus on this text—with consideration of Proverbs among other Ancient Near Eastern works. Likewise, when examining Proverbs’ composition, do any of us consider Proverbs as not being exclusively Israelite, but a product being influenced by the larger world surrounding Ancient Israel? Proverbs definitely asks us the questions of how we relate the Bible’s truths to today’s world and embody its principles in our daily lives.

Bibliography

Blank, S.H. “Proverbs,” in IDB, 3:936-940.

Boadt, Lawrence. “Proverbs, Book of,” in EDB, pp 1090-1092.

Clements, Robert E. “Proverbs,” in ECB, pp 437-466.

Crenshaw, James L. “Proverbs,” in ABD, 5:513-520.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Proverbs,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 235-245.

Fox, Michael V. “Proverbs,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1447-1498.

Harris, R. Laird. “Proverbs, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 830-831.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Proverbs,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1010-1021.

Hubbard, D.A. “Proverbs, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:1015-1020.

Huwiler, Elizabeth. “Proverbs,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 893-928.

Ross, Allen P. “Proverbs,” in EXP, 5:883-1134.

Ruffle, J. “Proverbs,” in NBCR, pp 548-550.

Whybray, R.N. ‘Proverbs,” in IDBSup, pp 702-704.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Proverbs

[1] Allen P. Ross, “Proverbs,” in EXP, 5:897-903.

[2] Robert E. Clements, “Proverbs,” in ECB, 438.

[3] Michael V. Fox, “Proverbs,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1447.

[4] HALOT, 1:647; cf. J. Ruffle, “Proverbs,” in NBCR, 549; James L. Crenshaw, “Proverbs,” in ABD, 5:513.

[5] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1010-1011; Lawrence Boadt, “Proverbs, Book of,” in EDB, 1090.

[6] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1013.

[7] “Hezekiah and his colleagues wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Qohelet” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[8] Dillard and Longman, pp 239-240.

[9] Ibid., pp 240-241.

[10] Ross, in EXP, 5:886.

[11] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1014.

[12] Dillard and Longman, pp 241-242.

[13] Ibid., 236.

[14] Ruffle, in NBCR, 549; Dillard and Longman, 237.

[15] Fox, in Jewish Study Bible, 1447.

[16] S.H. Blank, “Proverbs,” in IDB, 3:938.

[17] Ibid., 3:939.

[18] Cf. R.N. Whybray, ‘Proverbs,” in IDBSup, 703.

[19] Blank, “Proverbs,” in IDB, 3:936.

[20] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1016.

[21] Ibid., pp 1016-1017.

[22] Ruffle, in NBCR, 549.

[23] Blank, “Proverbs,” in IDB, 3:938; D.A. Hubbard, “Proverbs, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:1015-1016; Ross, in EXP, 5:883-884.

[24] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1014-1015; Crenshaw, “Proverbs,” in ABD, 5:516.

[25] Ruffle, in NBCR, 548.

[26] Crenshaw, “Proverbs,” in ABD, 5:513.

[27] Ross, in EXP, 5:886.

[28] R. Laird Harris, “Proverbs, Book of,” in NIDB, 830.

[29] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1018; Ross, in EXP, 5:890.

[30] Boadt, “Proverbs, Book of,” in EDB, 1091.

[31] Blank, “Proverbs,” in IDB, 3:937-938; Ross, in EXP, 5:888-889.

[32] Dillard and Longman, pp 242-244, 24.

[33] Ross, in EXP, 5:890.

[34] Dillard and Longman, 244.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON PROVERBS:

1. Having just surveyed the Book of Proverbs, which saying, oracle, or section of the text impacted you the most? Explain.

2. Do you think there is a deliberate pattern or outline to the Book of Proverbs? Why or why not?

3. What role might Proverbs 1:8-9:18 play in prefacing the specific proverbs issued by King Solomon?

4. What role does the figure of “Wisdom” play in the Book of Proverbs?

5. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Proverbs?

REFLECTION ON PROVERBS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Proverbs:

BOOK OF JOB

Approximate date: 900s B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 700s-400s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Time period: depicted in the Patriarchal era prior to the formation of Ancient Israel as a nation

Author: Moses (some Right); anonymous (some Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Location of author: wilderness (some Right); Land of Israel (some Right, some conservative-moderate); Land of Edom (some conservative-moderate, some Left); Babylon (some Left)

Target audience and their location: human beings who endure suffering

People:

Job, Satan, Sabeans, Chaldeans, Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, Zophar the Naamathite, Elihu (son of Barakel the Buzite, family of Ram), Jemimah, Keziah, Keren-Happuch

People mentioned:

Leviathan (creature), Bear and Orion (constellation), Pleiades (constellation), Rahab (sea monster)

Places:

land of Uz, Tema, Sheba, Ophir

Key Themes and Events:

Job is described as a very rich and blessed man, one who feared God and shunned evil / God allows Satan to bring calamity upon Job, but tells him not to touch Job himself / Job praises the Lord as his servants come to him, reporting how his property has been damaged and his family is in ruin / God allows Satan to strike Job with physical illness, but not to the point of death / Job rebukes his wife for telling him that he must curse God / Job’s three friends cannot recognize him because of his extreme suffering / Job curses the day of his birth, contemplating his present frustration / Job’s friend Eliphaz speaks to him, saying that he has had a Divine revelation from the Almighty / Job responds to Eliphaz, telling him how futile his Earthly life is compared to God / Job’s friend Bildad tells him to go before God, rectifying his mistakes, remembering those who came before him / Job responds to Bildad, explaining to him God’s almighty power, and how he loathes his life on Earth / Job’s friend Zophar describes how God can and will forget sin / Job responds to Zophar, acting as though what he has said to him has no meaning, as he has already contemplated it / Job’s friend Eliphaz believes that Job’s sin is the cause of the problems he has / Job considers the counsel of his friends to be evil, believing himself to be slandered by them / Job’s friend Bildad urges him to be sensible / all Job desires is the consolation and comfort of his friends, not their unsolicited counsel for his problems / Zophar considers Job’s words to be dishonoring, as he believes he is doing the right thing by emphasizing the fate of the wicked / Job tells his friends that their counsel does not concern his situation / Eliphaz tells Job that his sin must truly be great for God to have inflicted him with such suffering / Job presses his innocence before the Lord / Bildad asks Job how a human being can be pure before God / Job insists that he will not speak against God, in spite of the unfairness life has dealt him / Job testifies that true wisdom can only be found in God / Job describes how he thought his life was going to be prosperous, without any problems / Job’s prosperity and reputation have been taken from him, despite the fact that he has committed no wrong against God / Job goes through a litany of sinful acts that he could have committed that would warrant God’s punishment / the young man Elihu refutes the older Job, insisting that God must be judging him for wrong he has committed, urging him to consider God’s great power / the Lord Himself speaks to Job out of a storm, declaring His almighty power over the elements of Creation / the Lord asks Job to consider the powerful creatures He has made / Job sees God, having only heard of Him, knowing that God is there when all else is taken away / having passed the test placed before him, Job is restored to his previous place of prosperity and much more

Key Scriptures: Job 1:6-12; 5:7-18; 8:5-10; 11:7-9, 13-15; 13:20-24; 15:5-6; 19:21-22, 25-27; 27:2-6; 28:28; 31:1, 9-12; 40:7-9; 41:33-34; 42:5-6 / Job is Tested (1:1-2:13); Three Friends Answer Job (3:1-31:40); A Young Man Answers Job (32:1-37:24); God Answers Job (38:1-41:34); Job is Restored (42:1-17)

Theological Summary: The Book of Job is widely considered to be one of the most ancient stories in Scripture, but it is also a highly contested text as to its composition and message. The events depicted in Job are pre-Israel, likely dating from sometime in the Second Millennium B.C.E. The setting of Job is Uz (1:1), which may be another designation for Edom (Lamentations 4:21), giving us a strong clue that the general area where Job occurs is certainly a desert region.[1] Job is a substantial wisdom text that has affected Biblical Studies for millennia, asking us questions about Divine justice or theodicity, combined with human patience in times of suffering. In the Christian tradition, Job is placed among the books of Wisdom literature, whereas Jewish tradition places it among the Writings.

Many Rabbis and theologians consider Job to be a real historical person enduring a real experience. Others, however, consider the story to be parabolic, reflecting a true reality but with fictional characters as historical fiction. A proper interpretation of Job will take into consideration how it is deeply rooted with an Ancient Near Eastern background.[2]

While most of the book is written in first person, it can be safely assumed that the author of the text is not Job. The final author of Job is likely an Israelite as the Divine name YHWH is used intermittently to refer to God, even though the story of Job is not unique to Israel. In fact, the story of Job enduring difficult times is an integral part of the overall human experience.[3] We see a mix of literary types in Job, including: poetry, prose, and polemic speeches. Various scholars have compared Job to Ancient Near Eastern wisdom literature as well as Greco-Roman diatribe.[4] Examining each of these forms gives the interpreter a unique perspective.

The Book of Job is not without its controversy from its message to its composition.[5] Did the story of Job originally come from oral or written sources? A basic story of Job as a person is seen in 1:1-2:13 and in 42:7-17, interspersed with various dialogues and arguments in between. Some consider the Elihu speeches of chs. 32-37 to be a later addition. Was there a single author for Job? Or, was the story added to over time? These are some of the questions that arise when one considers the makeup of Job, and there is no uniform agreement among either conservatives or liberals.

Many conservatives believe that Job was a real person, but many others consider him a parabolic figure based on the literary type that we see in the text. Job is mentioned by name in Ezekiel 14:14, 20 as being a significant character, but the view of Job being a fictional character has been present throughout history.

Some Jewish tradition holds that the author of Job was actually Moses (b.Bava Batra 15a),[6] a view likewise held by some early Church Fathers.[7] Most conservatives today, however, feel that this is an arbitrary assignment and consider Job to be an anonymous book. This should not be surprising as no author is identified in the text.[8] But this does not mean that conservatives consider the text to have been pieced together over a series of centuries, either. Many conclude “the bulk of the present work comes from a single author. Some obscure passages are most likely the result of difficulties in transmission” (ISBE).[9]

Dating the text of Job is very difficult.[10] The events of the book probably occur concurrent to the Patriarchal era, and it is not improbable that Job was some kind of contemporary to Abraham.[11] The two options we are afforded to dating the composition are (1) sometime during or after the reign of Solomon, or (2) sometime during or after the Southern Kingdom’s exile to Babylon.

Conservatives generally date the text to the Solomonic period or immediately thereafter,[12] and adhere to some kind of unified authorship or composition of Job. A few do concede, however, that the text may not have reached its final form until the Third Century B.C.E.[13] Conservatives do not deny interpolations or additions to the text of Job, probably from its original sources.[14] The existence of a Targum on Job by the Second Century B.C.E. cannot place Job as a late text.

Liberals often date Job to the post-exilic period, and consider Job to solely be a literary character but not a real person.[15] They argue for a later dating of the text sometime in the Fifth Century B.C.E., and frequently argue that the story developed over time with bits and pieces added.[16] The main pieces of Job added or compiled over time would have included: (1) the prose narrative (1:1-3:1), (2) a Book of Job the Patient (1:1-2:13; chs. 27-28; 42:7-17), (3) a Book of Job the Impatient (chs. 1-31; 42:7-14), and finally (4) the three speeches of Elihu the intruder (chs. 32-37). Some liberals will even suggest that the theological message of Job became more complicated in relationship to the suffering of Israel,[17] possibly to answer the questions of the exile with Job representing “Israel.”[18] Interestingly enough, trends in liberal scholarship today are leaning toward a more unified composition,[19] but this does not necessarily mean that liberals are arguing for an older story.

Conservatives find a post-exilic dating for Job difficult due to the literary genre(s) of the book, and specific comparison with other Ancient Near Eastern literature of the same variety.[20] These comparisons are now acknowledged by most liberals,[21] leading them to a variety of conclusions. Some liberals have thought that the author of Job was an Edomite, and that the text or its sources were originally composed in a Semitic cognate of Ammonite, Moabite, or Aramaic,[22] not Hebrew. Others have thought that the story was originally Babylonian and brought into Hebrew during or after the exile.[23] Interestingly enough, various Rabbis who have held to a rather low opinion of Job have proposed similar theories since the Twelfth Century.[24]

The Book of Job can be very difficult to translate due to some of its archaic words.[25] Consider that the meaning of the name Iyov itself is open to a variety of meanings, ranging from “enemy” to “where is my father?” (IDB)[26] to “the penitent one” (ISBE).[27] The Greek Septuagint version omits information from the Hebrew Masoretic Text because of the relatively primitive nature of some of the words, abridging sections of the story.[28] In Bible translation and interpretation, the LXX of Job must be relied on less than the MT. Fragments of Job were discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The overall theological message of Job is suffering, but the kind of suffering described is open to a wide variance of interpretations. Is Job depicted as debating with God? Does Job have a crisis of faith? Certainly, we see in Job a person who struggles through life, losing his health, family members, and possessions, and he wonders why he must endure terrible tragedy. Is God the One who allows this evil? Or, is it the result of the satan or accuser that is introduced?[29] Was Job’s godliness genuine, or perceived? Did he experience difficulty because of his faithfulness, or a lack of it? Did Job lose almost everything because of God’s action—or inaction? Was Job being punished for his sin, or the sin of his forbearers? The Book of Job asks its readers a variety of difficult questions. It also details the reactions of Job’s friends to his suffering. In the end, we see that Job is faithful to God and is restored.

Many debates have ensued for centuries over the precise message of Job. In the end, we see that “No comprehensive answer is given to the problem of suffering” (Kline, NIDB),[30] and each reader is left to himself to meditate on the text and draw his own conclusions. Job certainly teaches us critical lessons about suffering, and suffering that he did not willfully submit to. This is to be contrasted against the suffering and agony of Yeshua the Messiah who suffered and died willingly for humanity.[31]

The current Messianic handling of Job today is uncertain. It often ranges from standard positions proposed by evangelical conservatives to fringe advocates who date Job’s composition prior to the Noahdic Flood. No discussions to our knowledge have ensued over whether the account is historically factual or parabolic. Likewise, not many discussions occur in today’s Messianic community over the subject of true suffering and the involvement or non-involvement of God. Ultimately, we see Job arising above the conflict and the emerging Messianic movement will eventually be forced to address age-old theological questions when it considers Job as a part of its greater Biblical Studies.

Bibliography

Brown, William P. “Job, Book of,” in EDB, pp 716-719.

Crenshaw, James L. “Job, Book of,” in ABD, 3:858-868.

Davison, Lisa. “Job,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 703-748.

Dell, Katharine J. “Job,” in ECB, pp 337-363.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Job,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 199-210.

Gruber, Mayer. “Job,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1499-1562.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Job,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1022-1046.

Hartley, J.E. “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1064-1076.

Kline, Meredith G. “Job, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 529-530.

Pope, M.J. “Job, Book of,” in IDB, 2:911-925.

Smick, Elmer B. “Job,” in EXP, 4:843-1060.

Zukerman, B. “Job, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 479-481.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Job

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1028.

[2] Ibid., pp 1023-1027.

[3] Meredith G. Kline, “Job, Book of,” in NIDB, 529.

[4] J.E. Hartley, “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1071; Mayer Gruber, “Job,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1499.

[5] Katharine J. Dell, “Job,” in ECB, 337.

[6] “Moses wrote his own book and part of Balaam and Job: That supports the view of R. Levi bar Lahma, for said R. Levi bar Lahma, Job. lived in the time of Moses. Here it is written, ‘O that my words were now written’ (Job. 19:23) and elsewhere, ‘For wherein now shall it be known’ (Exo. 33:16)” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[7] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1040; Elmer B. Smick, “Job,” in EXP, 4:850.

[8] Dillard and Longman, 200.

[9] Hartley, “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1072.

[10] Kline, “Job, Book of,” in NIDB, 529.

[11] M.J. Pope, “Job, Book of,” in IDB, 2:913; James L. Crenshaw, “Job, Book of,” in ABD, 3:863; Dillard and Longman, 200.

[12] Dillard and Longman, 200.

[13] Hartley, “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1065.

[14] Smick, in EXP, 4:846-847.

[15] Dell, in ECB, 338.

[16] William P. Brown, “Job, Book of,” in EDB, 716; Gruber, in Jewish Study Bible, 1501.

[17] Pope, “Job, Book of,” in IDB, 2:920.

[18] Dell, in ECB, 337.

[19] Ibid., 338.

[20] Smick, in EXP, 4:843-844; Dillard and Longman, pp 205-206.

[21] Pope, “Job, Book of,” in IDB, 2:914-917; Hartley, “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1066-1067; Crenshaw, “Job, Book of,” in ABD, 3:864-866; Lisa Davison, “Job,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 704.

[22] Pope, “Job, Book of,” in IDB, 2:912.

[23] Ibid., 2:913.

[24] Hartley, “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1065.

[25] Gruber, in Jewish Study Bible, 1500.

[26] Pope, “Job, Book of,” in IDB, 2:911.

[27] Hartley, “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1064; Smick, in EXP, 4:861.

[28] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1032; Smick, in EXP, 4:855.

[29] Hartley, “Job,” in ISBE, 2:1067-1068.

[30] Kline, “Job, Book of,” in NIDB, 530.

[31] Dillard and Longman, pp 209-210.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON JOB:

1. What is your initial impression after reading the Book of Job? What roles do its long discourses and speeches play in understanding the position of its characters?

2. What was Job’s sin? Had Job sinned against God? What did Job’s three friends try to do?

3. If Job had not committed any major sin against the Lord, then why did he suffer so? What are any of us to take away from the interactions between Job and those who counseled him?

4. What feature of Job struck you as being the most significant regarding your own walk with the Lord? Do you identify more with Job or those who counseled him? Are there any implied warnings to seek in the Book of Job?

5. Does an accurate application of the Book of Job matter if one views the text as an actual historical narrative, or as a parabolic illustration?

6. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Job?

REFLECTION ON JOB’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Job:

SONG OF SONGS

Approximate date: 900s B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 700s-600s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Purpose: to speak of the love of a bridegroom and bride

Author: Solomon or a patron directed by him (Right, some conservative-moderate); anonymous (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel or Jerusalem (Right, conservative-moderate); Land of Israel, Jerusalem, and/or Babylon or Persia (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel, later people of Judah (Right, conservative-moderate); Southern Kingdom returning or returned from Babylon (Left)

People:

“beloved” (or Shulammite), “lover,” friends

People mentioned:

Solomon, David

Places mentioned:

Jerusalem, Kedar, En Gedi, Sharon, Lebanon, Zion, Mount Gilead, Amana, Seir, Hermon, Tirzah, Mahanaim, Heshbon, Bath Rabbim, Damascus, Mount Carmel, Baal Hermon

Key Themes:

a series of “exchanges” between the Shulammite woman and her lover / a summary on the power of love between a man and woman

Key Scriptures: Song of Songs 2:7; 3:1; 6:3; 7:1-9 / The wedding day (1:1-2:7); Memories of courtship (2:8-3:5); Memories of engagement (3:6-5:1); A troubling dream (5:2-6:3); Praising the bride’s beauty (6:4-7:9); The bride’s tender approval (7:10-8:4); The power of love (8:5-14)

Theological Summary: The correct Hebrew title of this book of the Tanach is Shir HaShirim or Song of Songs. While many are agreed that Solomon is somehow related to this “song,” Song of Songs is the more correct title. Songs of Songs is placed among the Megillot in Jewish tradition, commonly being read during seasons such as Passover or Sukkot. In Roman Catholic tradition, this book is commonly referred to as Canticles, derived from the Latin Vulgate’s rendering of Shir HaShirim as Canticum Canticorum.

Song of Songs 1:1 ascribes authorship to Solomon by name, and he is referred to frequently throughout the text (1:1, 5; 3:7, 9, 11; 8:11-12), with other verses making reference to “the king” (1:4, 12; 7:5). Whether Solomon was the actual author or composer of Song of Songs has been debated, as some Jewish tradition ascribes authorship to the men of Hezekiah (b.Bava Batra 15a).[1]

In favor of Solomonic involvement are references to places throughout the text that were a part of Solomon’s kingdom.[2] Conservatives generally accept Solomonic authorship or some kind of Solomonic involvement, as Solomon is attested as having been responsible for 1,005 songs (1 Kings 4:32).

Liberals tend to date Song of Songs to the Persian period, and widely consider it to be a post-exilic work, possibly composed as late as 250 B.C.E. They often assert that Song of Songs is a selection of poems joined together,[3] and any kind of perceived unity in the text is likely the result of considerable redaction. This is often done so because of the usage of Persian words in Song of Songs, as well as a single Greek term[4] in its Hebrew text, causing liberals to conclude that the book must be from a later period. Conservatives usually respond to this by saying that Solomon had interactions with other cultures (1:9; cf. 1 Kings 4:31, 33), with a few suggesting that the foreign loan words are from much earlier and are actually Sanskrit.[5]

Dating Song of Songs to the Tenth Century contemporary to the reign of Solomon is not impossible. The distinct references to Tirzah and Jerusalem places the text, or at least a proto-text, some time before King Omri (1 Kings 16:23-24). It is notable that not all conservatives are convinced of a Tenth Century B.C.E. composition for Song of Songs because of the amount of loan words used in the book. Some conservatives advocate that the text reached its final form during the Hellenistic era.[6] Ultimately, however, no one can know with certainty the date for Song of Songs, similar to how no one can know the exact date for all of the Psalms.[7]

No significant controversy has ever surrounded Song of Songs’ canonical status,[8] as it has been widely valued in Jewish tradition (m.Yadayaim 3:5).[9] In fact, fragments of Song of Songs were discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls,[10] indicating that the Qumran community had some kind of regard for it.

Interpreting Song of Songs properly has been an interesting phenomenon in theology over the centuries. Today, scholars expel a great deal of time comparing Song of Songs to other forms of Biblical composition, notably the Wisdom books and apocryphal genres. Likewise, Proverbs is frequently examined to gain insight for Song of Songs’ more difficult sayings. Other literature that is often consulted includes Egyptian and Babylonian love songs.[11] The contemporary debate surrounding Song of Songs primarily concerns its original literary type and function.

Historically, both the Jewish and Christian traditions have allegorized the Song of Songs.[12] “There is extraordinary agreement between both Jewish and Christian tradition on this point” (ABD).[13] Some have suggested that this tendency came as the direct result of Hellenistic influence on both the Synagogue and the Church, with views of the body being sinful.[14] Any reference to lovers cannot be the original intent of Song of Songs, so instead the Synagogue widely considered it to be a love story between God and Israel. The Targum on Song of Songs follows suit, interpreting the text allegorically, with it generally being followed as such in various celebratory fashions. Song of Songs was used by the Zionist movement, for example, to consider the Paradise of Zion.[15] Christian tradition has followed suit and has widely interpreted Song of Songs as representing a love story between Christ and the Church.[16]

It is speculated that this view of Song of Songs was introduced after the book was accepted in the Biblical canon. More likely Song of Songs played a more prominent role in Ancient Israel’s culture[17] and had less spiritual ideas in mind than were attributed later.

More modern interpretations of Song of Songs lean toward the book being some kind of love story involving Solomon and one of his wives, or more literally the maiden for her shepherd lover resisting the appeal of Solomon.[18] Some are undecided as to what the involvement of Solomon or the woman actually is, believing that we should not force some kind of “story” onto the text and simply view it as love poetry.[19]

Theologically speaking, Song of Songs hardly affects any major Biblical doctrines—but it does profoundly affect how one looks at human sexuality. A great deal of teachers today, both Jewish and Christian, wishing to rejuvenate a healthy view of sex from the Bible, give significant attention to Song of Songs. A consensus of interpreters agree “that the Song of Songs has to do with human love in the literal historical sense” (IDBSup).[20] They point out that the Ancient Hebrews demonstrated a high degree of sexual morality compared to their neighbors.[21] God certainly wants to restore a healthy and meaningful sex life to all His people, where one can explore the joys that He intends a heterosexual couple to have.[22] The text of Song of Songs is somewhat provocative from this vantage point, as it is erotic with its references to various anatomical parts (4:1-7; 5:10-16; 6:4-10; 7:1-9). Song of Songs asks couples today many questions that those of previous eras—particularly the Victorian Era—did not want to answer. Young people preparing to marry are now often encouraged to closely consider Song of Songs.

Your average Messianic teacher often does not examine Song of Songs. Those who have taken the time to do so will often avoid the references to sexuality and focus on more traditional allegorical interpretations. It is difficult for many in our ranks to break out of the Nineteenth Century Victorianism,[23] often because issues like sexuality are not able to be easily discussed. Song of Songs should certainly be a text examined in more detail for Messianic Believers who want a sound handle on sexuality, and what is acceptable for married persons having intercourse. But even if read figuratively, Song of Songs should cause us to have more intimacy with God.

Bibliography

Balchin, J.A. “The Song of Solomon,” in NBCR, pp 579-587.

DeVries, Carl E. “Song of Songs, Song of Solomon,” in NIDB, pp 956-957.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Song of Songs,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 257-265.

Gottwald, N.K. “Song of Songs,” in IDB, 4:420-426.

Harrison, R.K. “Canticles or the Song of Solomon,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1049-1058.

Kinlaw, Dennis F. “Song of Songs,” in EXP, 5:1201-1244.

Knutson, F.B. “Canticles,” in ISBE, 1:606-609.

Landy, Frances. “Song of Solomon,” in EDB, pp 1242-1243.

Murphy, Roland E. “Song of Songs,” in IDBSup, pp 836-838.

________________. “Song of Songs, Book of,” in ABD, 6:150-155.

________________. “The Song of Solomon,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 943-953.

Rogerson, John W. “Song of Songs,” in ECB, pp 474-481.

Stern, Elsie. “The Song of Songs,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1564-1577.

ENDNOTES FOR Song of Songs

[1] “Hezekiah and his colleagues wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Qohelet” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1049.

[3] Roland E. Murphy, “The Song of Solomon,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 943.

[4] N.K. Gottwald, “Song of Songs,” in IDB, 4:421; F.B. Knutson, “Canticles,” in ISBE, 1:608; Carl E. DeVries, “Song of Songs, Song of Solomon,” in NIDB, 956; Dennis F. Kinlaw, “Song of Songs,” in EXP, 5:1209.

[5] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1050; Knutson, “Canticles,” in ISBE, 1:608.

[6] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1052; Knutson, “Canticles,” in ISBE, 1:608.

[7] Roland E. Murphy, “Song of Songs, Book of,” in ABD, 6:150.

[8] Ibid.

[9] “All sacred scriptures impart uncleanness to hands. The Song of Songs and Qohelet impart uncleanness to hands...” (m.Yadayaim 3:5; Jacob Neusner, trans., The Mishnah: A New Translation (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1988), 1127).

[10] Frances Landy, “Song of Solomon,” in EDB, 1243.

[11] Roland E. Murphy, “Song of Songs,” in IDBSup, 837; Murphy, “Song of Songs, Book of,” in ABD, 6:151; Murphy, in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 943.

[12] Gottwald, “Song of Songs,” in IDB; 4:422-423; Knutson, “Canticles,” in ISBE, 1:606; DeVries, “Song of Songs, Song of Solomon,” in NIDB, 956; Kinlaw, in EXP, 5:1202-1203.

[13] Murphy, “Song of Songs, Book of,” in ABD, 6:154.

[14] Dillard and Longman, 261.

[15] Elsie Stern, “The Song of Songs,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1566.

[16] J.A. Balchin, “The Song of Solomon,” in NBCR, 579; Knutson, “Canticles,” in ISBE, 1:606.

[17] Stern, in Jewish Study Bible, 1565.

[18] Balchin, in NBCR, 579.

[19] Gottwald, “Song of Songs,” in IDB, 4:420; Stern, in Jewish Study Bible, 1564.

[20] Murphy, “Song of Songs,” in IDBSup, 837.

[21] Gottwald, “Song of Songs,” in IDB, 4:425.

[22] Kinlaw, in EXP, 5:1207-1208.

[23] John W. Rogerson, “Song of Songs,” in ECB, 474.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON SONG OF SONGS:

1. How easy, or how difficult, is it to read and interpret the Song of Songs?

2. What do you believe the intention of the Song of Songs is? To demonstrate the love a man and woman are to have for each other? Or, the love God has for His people?

3. What important lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Song of Songs?

REFLECTION ON SONG OF SONGS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading Song of Songs:

BOOK OF RUTH

Approximate date: between 950-700 B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate); 586-500 or 400s-250s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: a famine in Israel during the rule of the Judges

Author: Samuel (Right); Israel’s court historians (conservative-moderate); an unknown person from the Southern Kingdom (Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel before or during the monarchy (Right, conservative-moderate); Land of Israel after the exile (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel before, during, or immediately after the reign of David (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish people having returned from Babylon (Left)

People:

Elimelech, Naomi, Mahlon, Kilion, Orpah, Ruth, Boaz, Obed

People mentioned:

the judges, “Mara” (another name for Naomi), kinsman-redeemer (unnamed), Rachel, Leah, Peretz, Tamar, Judah, David, ancestors of David (4:18-22)

Places:

Bethlehem (in Judah), Moab

Places mentioned:

Ephratah

Key Themes and Events:

famine in the Land of Israel / Elimelech moves his family to Moab / Elimelech, Mahlon, and Kilion all die in Moab / Naomi prepares to return to her home in Israel, and Ruth wishes to join her / Naomi returns to Bethlehem and tells the people to call her “Mara” / Boaz notices Ruth the Moabitess / Boaz asks his servants to deal generously with Ruth / Ruth tells Naomi that she encountered Boaz / Naomi advises that Ruth make herself attractive to Boaz / Naomi intends to sell Elimelech’s piece of land / the kinsman-redeemer refuses to buy the land / Boaz purchases Elimelech’s land as kinsman-redeemer, agreeing to take Ruth as his wife / Ruth marries Boaz / Ruth gives birth to Obed, ancestor of King David

Key Scriptures: Ruth 1:16-17; 2:10-12, 20; 4:9-10 / Ruth remains loyal to Naomi (1:1-22); Ruth gleans in Boaz’s field (2:1-23); Ruth follows Naomi’s plan (3:1-18); Ruth and Boaz are married (4:1-22)

Theological Summary: Readers of the Book of Ruth almost immediately can recognize it for what it is as a great account of human kindness,[1] as God uses people faithful to Him to accomplish restoration. Christian tradition, following the book order of the Greek Septuagint, places Ruth immediately after Judges. This was apparently something also followed by the First Century historian Josephus (Against Apion 1.38-40),[2] making Ruth an extended narrative as a part of the histories. In Jewish tradition Ruth is placed among the Writings, specifically among the five Megillot.[3] The Book of Ruth is not placed in this later part of the Scriptures to demean women, but because it is used for special holiday readings. Ruth is frequently read at Shavuot/Pentecost, partly because of the belief that King David was born and died at this time.[4]

The name of this text is for Ruth (Heb. Rut), a young Moabite woman, who would become the great-grandmother of King David and an ancestor of Yeshua the Messiah (4:21-22; Matthew 1:1, 5).[5] Even though this book is named for Ruth, the principal character is actually the Israelite widow Naomi, who is forced to move to Moab during a time of famine in the Land of Israel. The events that Ruth portrays occur during the time of the Judges (1:1), and actually take place during a time of relative peace between Israel and the Moabites. The story of Ruth gives us a glimpse into an Israelite family during this period, and how various women must fare on their own.[6]

Jewish tradition in the Talmud points to Samuel being the author of Ruth (b.Bava Batra 14b),[7] even though there is significant justification to doubt this because of the mention of King David at the end of the text (4:17, 22). Most conservatives today consider Ruth to be an anonymous book,[8] which means that its composition should likely be placed at the feet of Israel’s court historians. “There is nothing in the Book of Ruth itself that helps us to identify the author. All we can say is that he was a literary artist and skillful teacher” (EXP).[9]

Conservatives affirm that the style of Hebrew used in Ruth points to a composition time sometime during the monarchy. Many conservatives prefer to place it immediately prior to, or during the reign of King David,[10] perhaps a century after Ruth actually lived.[11] Some, however, argue for a later date during the monarchy after the death of David.[12] The presumed audience of Ruth needed to know about the various times in Israel’s history and the faithfulness of a few during a period of extreme unrest and moral depravity.

Liberals often consider the Book of Ruth to have been compiled after the Babylonian exile. While liberal views are not uniform, a few consider it to be a cult-myth from the Ancient Near East adopted by the Ancient Israelites.[13] Others consider Ruth to be an ahistorical novel, believing that many potentially unpleasant elements have been removed from the story, making it exactly that—a story.[14] Most liberals consider Ruth to have been written during the Fifth-Fourth Centuries B.C.E., or even as late as the Third Century B.C.E.,[15] as a protest to the intermarriage going on during the period of Ezra and Nehemiah.

Liberals will frequently argue that an archaic style of Hebrew has been deliberately imported into the text by Ruth’s author,[16] but this has been refuted on historical grounds by many conservatives.[17] Some liberals, surprisingly, in response to this evidence have been reverting to an earlier date for Ruth: “all of the old ‘evidence’ has shown itself to be quite indecisive…a story of a Moabite background for David must antedate the ‘transfigured’ picture of David in the days of the Chronicler and even the era of the royal psalms. Accordingly, perhaps all that can be said is that such evidence as does exist points to a date in the monarchic period, and more likely the earlier part of it” (IDBSup).[18]

Of course, the biggest problem with the liberal view of Ruth is the belief that it does not portray any valid historical events, or the lives of people who actually existed. Is the story of Ruth too idealistic? Do we have substantial reasons to doubt the historicity of what it portrays—or must we consider the author’s purpose for composing it?[19] Interestingly enough, there are some liberals who want to affirm some historicity of Ruth because of the centrality of women in the story,[20] including the possibility of a female author.[21]

Our present textual witnesses of Ruth in their Hebrew form are relatively strong. The MT and LXX generally conform to one another, with a few variants present among the DSS.[22]

In the story of Ruth, we see the principal female protagonist, Naomi, having to move to Moab because of a famine in Israel. While in Moab, her two sons take Moabite wives. Ruth is one of those wives. Naomi and Ruth become widowed, and Ruth as a Moabitess joins herself to the God of Israel and selflessly devotes herself to Naomi (1:16-17; 2:11-12; 3:10; 4:15). In the course of the story, they return to the Land of Israel and encounter a well-to-do Israelite named Boaz. Boaz demonstrates great kindness to both of these women (chs. 2-4), and is able to bring restoration to what they have lost, ultimately marrying Ruth.

The principal characters in Ruth all fulfill the Torah’s command to love (Leviticus 19:18; cf. Romans 13:10), and are blessed by God in the process. Ruth is wholeheartedly accepted into an Israelite family. Some theologians have compared the kindness of Ruth toward Naomi to the kindness shown by the Good Samaritan in Luke 10:30-37.[23]

Ruth is a very short story, and as such it is told quickly. It often has a very wide appeal to Bible readers because many are able to easily identify with the human interests that it portrays.[24] Many form critics have compared Ruth to being an ancient novella,[25] noting its high literary composition.

The principal theme of the Book of Ruth is undeniably redemption and God’s faithfulness through trial. This is something that we see all throughout the history of Ancient Israel. In spite of the terrible wickedness around them, the family unit portrayed in Ruth is faithful to God. “No one can be called evil in the book of Ruth” (Dillard and Longman).[26] The redemption that we see in Ruth largely relates to the restoration of those things that people have lost such as family members, property, and/or prestige.[27] Ruth is absolutely portrayed as an appropriate ancestor for both King David and Yeshua the Messiah.

In Ruth’s story of redemption, we see how God often works behind the scenes via the generosity of others.[28] “It is through this subtlety that the book instructs its readers concerning God’s ongoing work in the life of ordinary people” (Dillard and Longman).[29] We see how God can use those who are faithful to Him to bring salvation to others—even those outside of the presumed community of faith.[30] Some have even referred to the text as a “messianic history” (Dillard and Longman).[31]

On its own terms, Ruth is a very moving story, but knowing that Ruth was a progenitor of David and ultimately Yeshua Himself makes it an even more important stage to consider in the progressive plan of God.[32] Ruth portrays for us the significant theological concept of the kinsman-redeemer or go’el, something that we often lose in English translation.[33]

Many in today’s Messianic community examine the Book of Ruth at some time during the year, often during the festival of Shavuot. Ruth has a message that remains true for anyone who reads it at any time: God’s faithfulness during times of trial. It encourages us today to be welcoming of anyone who comes into the fold, Jewish or not, and consider them as full-fledged members of the community of Israel. Ruth portrays an example of how we should have godly homes and families that are faithful to God and His ways—and most importantly how we should love. It should also cause us to consider the valued role of women in the community of faith.

Bibliography

Baldwin, J.G. “Ruth,” in NBCR, pp 277-283.

Dillard, Raymond, and Tremper Longman III. “Ruth,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 129-134.

Farmer, Kathleen R. “Ruth,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 383-390.

Hals, R.M. “Ruth, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 758-759.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Ruth,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1059-1064.

Harvey, D. “Ruth, Book of,” in IDB, 4:131-134.

Huey, Jr. F.B. “Ruth,” in EXP, 3:509-549.

McComiskey, Thomas Edward. “Ruth, Book of,” in NIDB, 875.

Reinhartz, Adele. “Ruth,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1578-1585.

Smith, G.V. “Ruth,” in ISBE, 4:243-245.

Trible, Phyllis. “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:842-847.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Ruth

[1] D. Harvey, “Ruth, Book of,” in IDB, 4:131.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1063.

[3] Harvey, “Ruth, Book of,” in IDB, 4:134; J.G. Baldwin, “Ruth,” in NBCR, 278; G.V. Smith, “Ruth,” in ISBE, 4:423; Phyllis Trible, “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:846.

[4] Adele Reinhartz, “Ruth,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1579.

[5] Cf. Harvey, “Ruth, Book of,” in IDB, 1:131.

[6] Trible, “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:845.

[7] “Samuel wrote the book that is called by his name and the book of Judges and Ruth” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[8] Thomas Edward McComiskey, “Ruth, Book of,” in NIDB, 875; Smith, “Ruth,” in ISBE, 4:423.

[9] F.B. Huey, Jr., “Ruth,” in EXP, 3:510.

[10] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1060; Baldwin, in NBCR, 277; McComiskey, “Ruth, Book of,” in NIDB, 875; Smith, “Ruth,” in ISBE, 4:244; Huey, in EXP, 3:511.

[11] Baldwin, in NBCR, 278.

[12] Smith, “Ruth,” in ISBE, 4:244; Dillard and Longman, 131.

[13] Trible, “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:843.

[14] Baldwin, in NBCR, 277.

[15] Harvey, “Ruth, Book of,” in IDB, 4:132, 133.

[16] Ibid., 4:132.

[17] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1060-1061; Huey, in EXP, 3:511; Dillard and Longman, 130.

[18] R.M. Hals, “Ruth, Book of,” in IDBSup, 759.

[19] Huey, in EXP, 3:510.

[20] Reinhartz, in Jewish Study Bible, 1578.

[21] Trible, “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:843.

[22] Harrison; Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1063-1064; Huey, in EXP, 3:514; Trible, “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:843.

[23] Kathleen R. Farmer, “Ruth,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 383.

[24] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1059; Baldwin, in NBCR, 277.

[25] Hals, “Ruth, Book of,” in IDBSup, 758; Huey, in EXP, 3:512; Trible, “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:843.

[26] Dillard and Longman, 129.

[27] Farmer, in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 383.

[28] Hals, “Ruth, Book of,” in IDBSup, 785; Trible, “Ruth, Book of,” in ABD, 5:845; Reinhartz, in Jewish Study Bible, 1579.

[29] Dillard and Longman, 133.

[30] McComiskey, “Ruth, Book of,” in NIDB, 875; Smith, “Ruth,” in ISBE, 4:245.

[31] Dillard and Longman, 134.

[32] Ibid.

[33] Baldwin, in NBCR, 278.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON RUTH:

1. How bad was it for Naomi to have been widowed and on her own as a woman, among a foreign people (the Moabites), given the cultural norms of her day?

2. What do you believe the significance is of Boaz willfully agreeing to purchase Elimelech’s property and marrying Ruth?

3. How does the Book of Ruth affect the ongoing discussion of the role of women in today’s (Messianic) community of faith?

4. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Ruth seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON RUTH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Ruth:

BOOK OF LAMENTATIONS

Approximate date: 586-538 B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: immediately after the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians

Author(s): Jeremiah and/or Baruch (Right; some conservative-moderate); Baruch (some conservative-moderate); anonymous writers and editors (Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel or Jerusalem (Right, conservative-moderate); Land of Israel, Jerusalem, and/or Babylon (Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites at the beginning of the Babylonian exile (Right, some conservative-moderate, some Left); Southern Kingdom Israelites during the Babylonian exile (some conservative-moderate, some Left); Southern Kingdom Israelites after the Babylonian exile (some Left)

People:

the author (Jeremiah or Baruch), Judah (mostly Southern Kingdom exiles), Israel

People mentioned:

Jacob

Places:

Jerusalem, Zion, Edom, Uz, Egypt, Assyria

Key Themes:

the author (Jeremiah or Baruch) issues a cry over the fall of Jerusalem / the Lord is the One who issued the calamity that has befallen Jerusalem / the author speaks for a Jerusalem that is groaning / the Lord is described as an enemy that has laid waste to Jerusalem / the author describes the internal torment he feels for Jerusalem’s fall, as he does not know what he can do to offer help / the author details how the Lord has made him endure through terrible trial / the author describes how not all have been consumed, because of God’s compassion / the author speaks of the need to return to the Lord, because of Jerusalem’s worthlessness / the author calls upon God for His vengeance upon those who harmed him / the author becries the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians / the author details the decrepit state of what has happened to Judah and its people / the Lord is praised

Key Scriptures: Lamentations 1:7-11; 2:4-5, 11, 14, 17; 3:22-26, 37-40; 4:11-13; 5:19-22 / The author mourns for Jerusalem (1:1-22); God’s anger at sin (2:1-22); Hope in the midst of affliction (3:1-66); God’s anger is satisfied (4:1-22); The author pleads for restoration (5:1-22)

Theological Summary: The traditional Hebrew title of the Book of Lamentation is Eikah, meaning either “how” or “alas” (cf. 1:1; 2:1; 4:1).[1] The Talmud actually refers to the text as qinot, meaning “lamentations” (b.Bava Batra 14b), followed by the Greek Septuagint’s title of Thrēnoi and Latin Vulgate’s Lamentationes. This book is a collection of laments that bewail the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians. Some believe that the common title “Lamentations” is misleading as the overall theme deals more with grief than laments.[2] Lamentations is placed among the five Megillot of the Tanach Writings in Jewish tradition, but placed immediately after the Book of Jeremiah in the Christian book order of the Old Testament following the Septuagint and Vulgate.[3] Lamentations is specifically placed among the Megillot because of its usage for special occasions in Judaism, but the order of it being placed after Jeremiah was probably present among some First Century Jewish traditions.[4]

The text of Lamentations itself is strictly anonymous and claims no author. Jewish tradition ascribes some level of authorship to Jeremiah, sometimes based on 2 Chronicles 35:25: “Jeremiah chanted a lament for Josiah…they are also written in the Lamentations [Heb. ha’qinot].” There is debate among theologians whether this is a direct reference to the Book of Lamentations, or some other piece. The Septuagint rendering of Lamentations 1:1 specifically names Jeremiah, though, as its author: “And Ieremias lamented over Iosias, and all the leading men and leading women have spoken the lament over Iosias until this very day” (NETS). The authorship of Jeremiah for Lamentations is not impossible as we do see some similarity in style between Lamentations and Jeremiah 7:29; 8:21; 9:1, 10, 20. Jeremiah was an eyewitness to the judgment of God on Jerusalem that is thoroughly described in Lamentations. Jeremianic authorship of Lamentations is attested in the Talmud (b.Bava Batra 15a)[5] and was followed by the Church Fathers.[6]

Conservatives today generally lean toward some kind of Jeremianic involvement in Lamentations, but would concede that the laments may have actually been composed by Jeremiah’s scribe Baruch,[7] accounting for some stylistic changes. “Theological similarities with Jeremiah were to be expected from anyone who accepted his teaching and that of the great prophets in general” (EXP),[8] and so some conservatives accept that Lamentations was composed entirely by Baruch. A reliable interpretation of the text should not insist upon Jeremianic authorship,[9] as we cannot be entirely certain who finally authored these laments or compiled them together. The text should be dated sometime in the mid-to-late Sixth Century B.C.E., but even conservatives are not agreed whether it was written at the beginning, during, or at the end of the Babylonian exile.

Liberal theologians primarily lean to the laments being composed sometime after the Babylonian exile. All liberals favor an anonymous authorship of all of Lamentations, and concede that it may have been written from those among the priestly classes. Liberals severely doubt any kind of genuine Jeremianic involvement in Lamentations,[10] and make light of the fact that the Jewish book order places it separate from the Book of Jeremiah.[11] Liberals will often attribute some changes in style throughout Lamentations to a plurality of voices being used in compiling the text,[12] and argue that the ideas in Lamentations do not easily align with what is seen in Jeremiah.[13] Conservatives point out that this is not an argument against Jeremianic involvement because the author of Lamentations is addressing a new situation that the Book of Jeremiah does not portray.[14]

A few radical liberals of the past proposed that the laments did not involve the destruction of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babyloninas, but rather the Second Century B.C.E. siege of Antiochus Epiphanes.[15] Today, however, some liberals are moving to the opposite side of the spectrum, in that “there is no strong reason to suppose that more than one person was responsible for these poems” (EDB),[16] and “have tended to view the book more holistically” (Dillard and Longman).[17] More evidence is seen to support Jeremianic authorship or involvement in Lamentations than what stands against it.[18]

The Hebrew text of Lamentations is in a relatively good state of preservation.[19] There are no significant deviations between the Hebrew Masoretic Text and the Greek Septuagint,[20] although the preservation of the LXX does demonstrate some issues. It is likely that the LXX translators used a different Hebrew source text than the present MT.[21]

The text of the Book of Lamentations is very poetic. The first, second, fourth, and fifth laments all contain 22 verses, reflecting the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. Lamentations follows a distinct meter.[22] Lamentations is not unique in that there are other laments in Scripture, but is unique in that it is the only book of the Tanach exclusively devoted to laments. Many have viewed Jeremiah or Baruch as the one lamenting, but today a personified Jerusalem is now being suggested among interpreters.[23] There are definitely parallels that exist between Lamentations and other Ancient Near Eastern texts that lament the fall of cities. These texts include: the Lamentation Over the Destruction of Ur, Lamentation Over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur, and Lamentation Over the Destruction of Nippur.[24]

Lamentations is traditionally read during the Hebrew month of Av, particularly on the Ninth of Av to remember the destruction of Solomon’s Temple in 586 B.C.E. (cf. Jeremiah 41:5; Zechariah 7:3-5; 8:19) and the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.[25] The style of Lamentations plays a very important role in the development of Jewish liturgical prayer.[26] Lamentations is also a text that is commonly employed by Orthodox Jews praying regularly at the Western Wall in Jerusalem. In Roman Catholic tradition, Lamentations is often read during Holy Week to remember the sufferings and death of Yeshua the Messiah.[27]

Lamentations forces its readers to remember the judgment of God and the pain that the Southern Kingdom had to endure for its disobedience. The text of Lamentations was clearly compiled to remind people of their duties before the Lord and how He uses human agents like the Babylonians to accomplish His ends. Lamentations would have been used on the part of the Southern Kingdom exiles to express some remorse for what they let happen, but also includes a message of hope for the repentant.

When reading Lamentations today, one often asks whether the worldview of today’s Christianity is substantially different from those who originally encountered its message. Does Lamentations minister to those who face calamity in today’s world? The Book of Lamentations largely focuses on corporate suffering in a similar way that the Book of Job focuses on individual suffering.[28] Common Jewish views of Lamentations have viewed the text with great profundity, given the great deal of suffering that the Jewish people have had to experience throughout history.[29] Repentance is the way to demonstrate thanksgiving for God’s faithfulness,[30] because “His compassion is greater than his anger (3:31-33…)” (Dillard and Longman).[31]

Presently, Lamentations is not a book of the Tanach that often receives a great deal of attention from today’s Messianics. Some will read Lamentations in conjunction with the month of Av, but most do not. Future Messianic examinations of Lamentations need to consider its relationship to the destruction of Jerusalem, and the issues that its original recipients/audience faced. Likewise, subjects that Lamentations forces us to consider include corporate suffering, the necessity of repentance, and the need to minister to the hurting. What kind of suffering does today’s Messianic movement actually face? Do we recognize the suffering of others in the worldwide Body of Messiah beyond our Messianic community?

Bibliography

Broomall, Wick. “Lamentations,” in NIDB, pp 579-580.

Clines, David J.A. “Lamentations,” in ECB, pp 617-622.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Lamentations,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 303-312.

Dobbs-Allsopp, F.W. “Lamentations, Book of,” in EDB, pp 785-787.

Ellison, H.L. “Lamentations,” in EXP, 6:695-733.

Gottwald, N.K. “Lamentations, Book of,” in IDB, 3:61-63.

_____________. “Lamentations,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1141-1152.

Grossberg, Daniel. “Lamentations,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1587-1602.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Lamentations,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1065-1071.

Hillers, Delbert R. “Lamentations, Book of,” in ABD, 4:137-141.

Soderlund, S.K. “Lamentations,” in ISBE, 3:65-68.

Stephens-Hodge, L.E.H. “Lamentations,” in NBCR, pp 659-663.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Lamentations

[1] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1065.

[2] David J.A. Clines, “Lamentations,” in ECB, 617.

[3] Dillard and Longman, 304.

[4] Delbert R. Hillers, “Lamentations, Book of,” in ABD, 4:138.

[5] “Jeremiah wrote the book that is called by his name, the book of Kings, and Lamentations” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[6] S.K. Soderlund, “Lamentations,” in ISBE, 3:65.

[7] L.E.H. Stephens-Hodge, “Lamentations,” in NBCR, 659; Wick Broomall, “Lamentations,” in NIDB, 580.

[8] H.L. Ellison, “Lamentations,” in EXP, 6:696.

[9] Dillard and Longman, 304.

[10] N.K. Gottwald, “Lamentations, Book of,” in IDB, 3:61, 62.

[11] Delbert R. Hillers, “Lamentations, Book of,” in ABD, 4:138.

[12] Daniel Grossberg, “Lamentations,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1587.

[13] Soderlund, “Lamentations,” in ISBE, 3:65.

[14] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1069.

[15] Gottwald, “Lamentations, Book of,” in IDB, 3:62; Stephens-Hodge, in NBCR, 659.

[16] F.W. Dobbs-Allsopp, “Lamentations, Book of,” in EDB, 785.

[17] Dillard and Longman, 306.

[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1070.

[19] Hillers, “Lamentations, Book of,” in ABD, 4:140.

[20] Ellison, in EXP, 6:699.

[21] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1071.

[22] Soderlund, “Lamentations,” in ISBE, 3:66-67; Hillers, “Lamentations, Book of,” in ABD, 4:139-140.

[23] Dillard and Longman, 306.

[24] Dillard and Longman, 307; Dobbs-Allsopp, “Lamentations, Book of,” in EDB, 785.

[25] Daniel Grossberg, “Lamentations,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1589.

[26] Gottwald, “Lamentations, Book of,” in IDB, 3:63.

[27] N.K. Gottwald, “Lamentations,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1141.

[28] Dillard and Longman, 311.

[29] Grossberg, in Jewish Study Bible, 1587.

[30] Clines, in ECB, 618.

[31] Dillard and Longman, 312.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON LAMENTATIONS:

1. What feature or stanza of Lamentations’ poetry hit you the hardest as its author was crying over Jerusalem’s fall? Have you ever cried out to God in a similar way?

2. In spite of the great sinfulness of Judah and Jerusalem, how significant is it that the author appeals to God’s mercy and compassion?

3. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Lamentations? (What specific lessons could be learned about prayer and intercession from Lamentations?)

REFLECTION ON LAMENTATIONS’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Lamentations:

BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES

Approximate date: 900s B.C.E. (Right); 900s B.C.E. for composition of source material, 715-686 B.C.E. for redactions (conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Purpose: to explain the common futility of human life

Author: Solomon (Right, some conservative-moderate); “Qohelet” (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel or Jerusalem (Right, conservative-moderate); Land of Israel, Jerusalem, and/or Babylon (Left)

Target audience and their location: people of Israel, later people of Judah (Right, conservative-moderate); Southern Kingdom returning or returned from Babylon (Left)

People:

Preacher/Teacher/Qohelet

Places:

Jerusalem

Key Themes:

the Preacher explains that everything is meaningless (or vanity) / there is nothing new “under the sun” (recurring) / the Preacher states that he was a king in Jerusalem / the Preacher explains how pleasures are meaningless / the Preacher took no benefit from learning wisdom / the Preacher says that he must leave his achievements to someone when he dies / the Preacher says that there is a “time” for everything / a man’s fate is the same as an animal’s / the Preacher speaks of the evil that is on the Earth / human beings must express great fear and awe for God / possessing riches can be meaningless / it is meaningless to have riches, wealth, and prosperity  yet not be able to enjoy them / the Preacher speaks about the advantages of wisdom / human beings are to obey secular authorities (that punish criminals) / every human being, good or evil, is destined to physically die / the Preacher speaks of how wisdom is properly applied / the Preacher admonishes his listeners to remember their Creator

Key Scriptures: Ecclesiastes 1:1, 9-10, 16-17; 2:4-9, 10-11, 15-16, 17-18, 24-26; 3:1-8, 19-20; 4:13; 5:18-19; 6:12; 7:11-12, 20-22, 29; 9:7; 12:1, 13-14 / Qohelet’s personal experience (1:1-2:26); Qohelet’s general observations (3:1-5:20); Qohelet’s practical counsel (6:1-8:15); Qohelet’s final conclusion (8:16-12:14)

Theological Summary: The Book of Ecclesiastes is one of several important wisdom texts in the Hebrew Tanach. Its Hebrew title, Qohelet, is derived from the term qahal or assembly, with its author understood as some kind of officer of an assembly. Its Greek Septuagint title is Ekklēsiastēs, derived from the equivalent ekklēsia for qahal. The designated speaker in Ecclesiastes is Qohelet, which some prefer to render as “Teacher” (NIV, NRSV) or “Preacher” (NASU), because they are unsure what else to render it as.[1] Jerome interpreted it in his Latin Vulgate as concionator, a speaker before the assembly.[2] Ecclesiastes is placed among the Wisdom Books in Christian tradition, but in Jewish tradition is part of the five Megillot of the Writings.

Ecclesiastes is generally a text that is consulted when considering the frailties of human existence, and also the reality of death. There are mixed interpretations and views of Ecclesiastes from both Jewish and Christian readers. Some believe that it is an important text with an important message, and others consider it to be pessimistic and full of inconsistencies.

The text of Ecclesiastes is strictly anonymous from internal first person references, although there are several important propositions concerning its authorship—which notably conservatives are not agreed upon.

Jewish tradition widely espouses Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes,[3] although some Talmudic tradition indicates that Ecclesiastes was preserved by the men of Hezekiah (b.Bava Batra 14b-15a).[4]

Many presume that Solomon wrote Ecclesiastes based on some internal remarks (1:1, 12, 16; 2:4-9; 7:26-29; 12:9), notably making light of the author’s wisdom, interest in proverbs, and building projects.[5] It is believed that Solomon is reflecting on the negative actions of his life in his twilight years. Those who accept Solomonic authorship date the text to sometime in the 900s B.C.E., perhaps 940 B.C.E.

A significant number of conservatives (including the author) seriously doubt Solomonic authorship. The writer is strictly known as Qohelet in Ecclesiastes[6] and Solomon is not at all mentioned by name. The same verses that are often used to point to Solomonic authorship are also used as being against it: “The words of the Preacher, the son of David, king in Jerusalem…I, the Preacher, have been king over Israel in Jerusalem” (1:1, 12). Must we assume that “son of David” means that Qohelet is the immediate son of David, or could he also be his descendant? Note that Qohelet later says, “I have magnified and increased wisdom more than all who were over Jerusalem before me” (1:16). If Qohelet is Solomon, then the “all” who were ruling Jerusalem before him were just David, and not a plural line of kings from the Davidic line as is implied.

Conservatives who doubt Solomonic authorship often do so because “so much profound and godly wisdom originates with a man who eventually apostasized” (Dillard and Longman),[7] as Solomon is not often an example of great piety to consider in Scripture. Many conservatives instead advocate that a later monarch of the Southern Kingdom—yet of the Davidic line—was responsible for Ecclesiastes.[8] Note that the time represented throughout Ecclesiastes does not conform well to Solomon’s reign as it is replete with hardship and difficulty for Israel.[9] But this does not mean that much of Ecclesiastes’ valid wisdom is not Solomonic in origin, having been passed down in the royal court of Judah.[10] Some would suggest that the second wise man seen in Ecclesiastes is the actual author.[11]

Those who doubt Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes also point to a later and more refined style of Hebrew that is used in its composition,[12] one that is replete with Aramaisms[13] and borrowed Persian words.[14] There is, however, renewed debate over whether or not the Hebrew style is really that late, with some proposing that Solomon employed a scribe with a unique style to write his treatise.[15] Even though there are many conservatives who doubt Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes, they do not doubt the importance of the text.

Liberal theologians deny any Solomonic involvement whatsoever with Ecclesiastes. They propose that Ecclesiastes was written sometime around the Maccabean era of the 200s B.C.E., considering its author to be a Jewish sage “schooled in the wisdom tradition and affected by the spirit…of Greek philosophy” (IDB).[16] Liberals assume that the author speaks as a pseudonym for Solomon, but nothing more. Some Jewish liberals are a little more reserved, preferring to date Ecclesiastes to the Sixth to Fourth Centuries B.C.E.,[17] with a few conservatives concurring with this assessment.[18] Liberals are unsure as to whether Ecclesiastes is a single work, or is a product of several authors.[19] Some go as far as suggesting that Ecclesiastes was originally an Aramaic secular work religiously adopted and updated with a form of late Hebrew.

Comparison with Ancient Near Eastern literature supports an earlier dating of Ecclesiastes,[20] likewise realized by the fact that the author of Ecclesiastes demonstrates no familiarity with Greek literature or composition. The default position of either conservatives or liberals is to refer to Ecclesiastes’ author as simply Qohelet.

The Hebrew text of Ecclesiastes is in generally good condition, with its Greek Septuagint translation being quite formal.[21]

The theological focus of Ecclesiastes is the usage of human wisdom. Some postulate that Solomon is reflecting on his wanton life and cannot see beyond the visible world. Others see a more general attitude in mind with the people of Israel being addressed by a court servant. The common themes seen in Ecclesiastes are that human life is “meaningless” (1:2, NIV) and that one must “fear God and keep His commandments” (12:13). However, many have considered Ecclesiastes to be hedonistic because of Qohelet’s remark, “There is nothing better for a man than to eat and drink and tell himself that his labor is good” (2:24). “[T]he majority of interpreters judge him to be a consummate pessimist who despairs finding any good in life” (New Interpreter’s Study Bible),[22] but some actually consider him to be an optimist because of his pessimism.

In Ecclesiastes we see that human wisdom has its limits (1:13, 16-18; 7:24; 8:16), and that human beings cannot achieve anything of endless endurance. One’s experience often comes with disappointment. Much of Ecclesiastes has a negative tone, forcing the reader to turn to God and not his or her own strength for support.[23]

It should be noted that Ecclesiastes was a controversial text in the Jewish canon[24] and that its status was seriously questioned.[25] The Pharisaical School of Hillel considered Ecclesiastes to be a text that soils the hands.[26] Likewise, “The book’s relative skepticism made it an offense to some of the conservative school (Shammai) within Judaism” (ISBE).[27] The more progressive School of Hillel ultimately accepted it, but Jewish unhappiness toward Ecclesiastes continued well into the Fourth Century C.E. The controversy surrounding Ecclesiastes primarily concerned the Pharisees’ thought that Ecclesiastes did not uphold the doctrine of resurrection. Any Messianic interpretation of Ecclesiastes needs to be tempered by this same skepticism.

The Christian theological tradition has likewise been suspect of Ecclesiastes, mostly because of its negative and soulish tone. But this has been changing in recent years, with some interpreters leaning toward the position that “Qoheleth is addressing the general public whose view is bounded by the horizons of this world; he meets them on their own ground, and proceeds to convict them of its inherent vanity” (NBCR).[28] This would require the author to speak in more secular terms, and for us to understand his Earth-bound perspective. “[A]lthough there is little developed sense of the hereafter, Qoheleth has no doubt that God, who rules over all, will some day or in some manner bring every act to judgment, whether good or evil (12:14)” (ISBE).[29] The inclusion of Ecclesiastes in the Christian canon also found some skepticism, but was assured given Paul’s reference to the book in Romans 8:20.

Ecclesiastes is a common text from the Tanach read in today’s Messianic community. It is commonly read during the season of Sukkot or the Feast of Tabernacles, a tradition going back to the Eleventh Century C.E.[30] Most Messianic readers, however, are unfamiliar with the controversies surrounding it in both Jewish and Christian history. Few are aware that Solomon was probably not the author of Ecclesiastes. Likewise, a significant theological weakness among some Messianics is that Ecclesiastes is often given more weight than the Gospels or Apostolic letters in examining some issues, notably those of death and the afterlife. We have the strong responsibility to not treat Ecclesiastes in isolation from the rest of the Bible,[31] while respecting its unique message and the presentation style of Qohelet.

Bibliography

Beecher, W.J., and C.E. Amerding. “Ecclesiastes,” in ISBE, 2:11-14.

Blank, S.H. “Ecclesiastes,” in IDB, 2:7-13.

Crenshaw, James L. “Ecclesiastes, Book of,” in ABD, 2:271-280.

Dilllard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Ecclesiastes,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament,” pp 247-255.

Farmer, Kathleen, “Ecclesiastes, Book of,” in EDB, pp 367-368.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Ecclesiastes,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1072-1084.

Hendry, G.S. “Ecclesiastes,” in NBCR, pp 570-578.

Jarick, John. “Ecclesiastes,” in ECB, pp 467-473.

Lee, Eunny P. “Ecclesiastes,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 929-942.

Machinist, Peter, “Ecclesiastes,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1603-1622.

McComiskey, Thomas Edward. “Ecclesiastes,” in NIDB, pp 290-291.

Priest, J.F. “Ecclesiastes,” in IDBSup, pp 249-250.

Wright, J. Stafford. “Ecclesiastes,” in EXP, 5:1137-1197.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Ecclesiastes

[1] James L. Crenshaw, “Ecclesiastes, Book of,” in ABD, 2:271-272.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1072.

[3] Peter Machinist, “Ecclesiastes,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1605.

[4] “Hezekiah and his colleagues wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Qohelet” (b.Bava Batra 14b-15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[5] Thomas Edward McComiskey, “Ecclesiastes,” in NIDB, 290; J. Stafford Wright, “Ecclesiastes,” in EXP, 5:1140.

[6] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1074-1075; Dillard and Longman, 249.

[7] Dillard and Longman, 248.

[8] McComiskey, “Ecclesiastes,” in NIDB, 290.

[9] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1074.

[10] W.J. Beecher and C.E. Amerding, “Ecclesiastes,” in ISBE, 2:13.

[11] Dillard and Longman, 250.

[12] Harrison, pp 1074-1075; Beecher and Amerding, “Ecclesiastes,” in ISBE, 2:13; Wright, in EXP, 5:1141.

[13] Crenshaw, “Ecclesiastes, Book of,” in ABD, 2:274-275.

[14] Kathleen Farmer, “Ecclesiastes, Book of,” in EDB, 367.

[15] Wright, in EXP, 5:1142.

[16] S.H. Blank, “Ecclesiastes,” in IDB, 2:7; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1075-1076.

[17] Machinist, in Jewish Study Bible, 1605.

[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1077.

[19] Crenshaw, “Ecclesiastes, Book of,” in ABD, 2:272.

[20] Wright, in EXP, 5:11476-11447; Dillard and Longman, pp 251-252.

[21] Wright, in EXP, 5:1149.

[22] Eunny P. Lee, “Ecclesiastes,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 929; cf. J.F. Priest, “Ecclesiastes,” in IDBSup, 249.

[23] Priest, “Ecclesiastes,” in IDBSup, 250.

[24] G.S. Hendry, “Ecclesiastes,” in NBCR, 570; Machinist, in Jewish Study Bible, 1605.

[25] Wright, in EXP, 5:1137.

[26] Blank, “Ecclesiastes,” in IDB, 2:7.

[27] Beecher and Amerding, “Ecclesiastes,” in ISBE, 3:14; cf. Wright, in EXP, 5:1148-1149.

[28] Hendry, in NBCR, 570.

[29] Beecher and Amerding, “Ecclesiastes,” in ISBE, 2:12.

[30] Blank, “Ecclesiastes,” in IDB, 3:8.

[31] Wright, in EXP, 5:1137.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON ECCLESIASTES:

1. How easy, or difficult, is it to read and interpret Ecclesiastes?

2. Who do you believe the Teacher/Preacher or Qohelet is, or might be? How might this affect your interpretation and application of the text?

3. How much theological weight do you believe Ecclesiastes should be given in the scope of the larger Biblical canon? (Be honest if you have never considered this before.)

4. What important lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Ecclesiastes?

REFLECTION ON ECCLESIASTES’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Ecclesiastes:

BOOK OF ESTHER

Approximate date: 460 B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate); 330 B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: Jews dispersed throughout the Persian Empire

Author: anonymous (some Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Location of author: Persia (Right, conservative-moderate); Land of Israel after the exile (most Left)

Target audience and their location: Jewish people in Persian Empire (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish people having returned from the Babylonian Exile, probably during the time of the Maccabees (Left)

People:

Ahasuerus/Xerxes, Vashti, Mordecai (son of Jair, son of Shimei, son of Kish), Hadassah/Esther, Bithgana, Teresh, Haman (son of Hammedatha, the Agagite), Hathach

People mentioned:

Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, Abagtha, Zethar, Carcas (Xerxes’ eunuchs), Carshena, Shethar, Admatha, Tarshish, Meres, Marsena, Memucan (Xerxes’ advisors/experts), Nebuchadnezzar, Jehoiachin, Shaashgaz (eunuch), Abihail, Zeresh, Parshandatha, Dalphon, Aspatha, Poratha, Adalia, Aridatha, Parmashta, Arisai, Aridai, Vaizatha (ten sons of Haman)

Places:

Susa, Persia, Media

Places mentioned:

India, Cush, Babylon

Key Themes and Events:

King Xerxes holds a banquet where he intends to showcase his wife, Queen Vashti / Vashti refuses, and an edict is released calling for a new queen to be found / the (unknown) Jewess Esther found favor by King Xerxes / Mordecai is given credit for reporting an assassination plot on King Xerxes / Mordecai as a Jew refuses to bow before Haman / Haman develops a scheme to exterminate the Jews in Persia / Mordecai and the Jews wail in sackcloth and ashes over the decree of Haman / Esther prepares herself to go before King Xerxes / Esther is granted the request to hold a banquet for Xerxes and Haman / King Xerxes has Haman honor Mordecai for having saved his life from potential assassination / Esther pleads with King Xerxes to spare the lives of the Jews / King Xerxes insists that the evil Haman be hanged on his own gallows / Mordecai is appointed over Haman’s estate / the Jews throughout the Persian Empire are given the right to defend themselves against their enemies / the Jews in Persia eliminate their most lethal enemies / Haman’s sons are executed / Purim is celebrated for the first time, commemorating the deliverance of the Jews / Purim is designated as a festival that all the Jews should keep / Mordecai is made second to King Xerxes

Key Scriptures: Esther 1:19-20; 2:17-18, 22-23; 3:5-6; 4:1-3, 14-16; 5:14; 7:3-6, 9-10; 8:11-12; 9:18-23, 30-32; 10:3 / Esther becomes queen (1:1-2:23); The Jews are threatened (3:1-4:17); Esther intercedes for the Jews (5:1-8:17); The Jews are delivered (9:1-10:3)

Theological Summary: The Book of Esther is one of the most unique texts in the Tanach, with those who read it demonstrating a wide variety of opinions: from Maimonides who placed it second only to the Torah, Luther who thought it was gaudy and sensual, and the feminist theologian who places it at the center of her theology. In the Christian theological tradition, Esther is placed among the Historical books, whereas Jewish tradition places it among the Five Scrolls or Megillot to be read during holiday times. Esther tells the story of a Jewish girl who becomes the new queen of Persia, and is placed in a position to save the Jewish people from extinction.

The purpose of Esther’s composition was primarily to justify the celebration of Purim[1] as a holiday for the Jewish people during and immediately following the reign of the Persian King Ahasuerus, known in Greek historical works as Xerxes (3:7; 9:26-32).[2] The young Jewess Esther becomes the queen of Persia, and her cousin Mordecai learns about the genocidal plans of the evil Haman toward the Jews. The location of these events is in the Persian city of Susa. The text may easily be described as a Jewish novella, with the term Purim derived from the lot or pur Haman cast to determine the date of execution for the Jews (3:7; 9:24).

Conservative theologians regard the author of Esther as being anonymous,[3] but most certainly a Jew. Jewish tradition in the Talmud (b.Bava Batra 15a)[4] attributes authorship of the book to the figures of the Great Synagogue. The author of Esther was most probably a Persian Jew who was quite familiar with the inner workings and social structure of the Persian Empire, as he demonstrates no knowledge of events or circumstances going on in the Land of Israel. The text of Esther was likely composed before Ezra’s return to Jerusalem, and with that was probably written shortly after the events it depicts, sometime in the late Fifth Century B.C.E. Esther 9:22 suggests that the festival of Purim was celebrated for some time before Esther’s composition:

“[I]t was a month which was turned for them from sorrow into gladness and from mourning into a holiday; that they should make them days of feasting and rejoicing and sending portions of food to one another and gifts to the poor.”

Liberal scholars often advocate a later composition for Esther, as early as the late Fourth Century B.C.E. Various Greek “loan words” present in the text make some suggest that Esther is a composition of the early Hellenistic period.[5] Liberals will often consider the events portrayed in Esther to be pseudohistorical, and perhaps even to be read as a comedy.[6] Many doubt that the events ever took place,[7] and conclude that they are only a “festal legend” (IDBSup).[8] The people in the Book of Esther are often viewed as only being caricatures of other figures that antagonized the Jewish people.

Doubting the historicity of Esther is not only a feature of modern higher criticism, but even some Jews of ancient times doubted its validity (b.Megillah 7a).[9] Many try to connect the feast of Purim to the Maccabean period and their victory over the Greeks,[10] including Haman being modeled after Antiochus Epiphanes.[11] Many liberals, however, do consider the story of Esther to have great value, particularly concerning Esther as a female protagonist in a male-dominated Persian society.

Conservatives and liberals all recognize that the Book of Esther is not to be taken as “sober history” (NBCR),[12] as there are certainly elements in the story that are meant to guide the reader. But how far we take this has led to a diverse array of conclusions. Many liberals will claim that the Persian Empire was tolerant of minorities, thus casting doubt on Esther’s claim of genocide against the Persian Jews. Others will argue, “The writer displays a most intimate and accurate knowledge of the Persian court and customs, so much so that Esther is used to fill gaps in the accounts of classical historians” (EDB).[13] Conservatives will commonly note that the Greek historian Herodotus writes that King Xerxes was ruthless and despotic,[14] and that we cannot make broad generalizations of Persian culture.

Perhaps the most significant support for the historicity of Esther among external data is a reference to a certain Marduka (Mordecai) among Persian records,[15] proving that the Biblical Mordecai could certainly have existed. Today there appears to be a trend in liberal scholarship toward accepting some historicity of the text, as some note that “nothing in the story seems improbable, let alone unbelievable” (ABD),[16] with some even dating the text (or at least a proto-text) in the late Persian period.[17]

The textual witness for Esther is immense. “[T]here are more MS copies of Esther than of any other book of the OT” (NBCR),[18] and there is extensive Rabbinic commentary on Esther in the Talmud. This high regard for Esther actually sees it placed second to the Torah among some manuscripts.[19] There exist three major editions of the text of Esther,[20] notably the Hebrew Masoretic Text, Greek Septuagint, and a second Greek edition. There are additions to the Book of Esther found in the LXX that have a major religious character. These chapters are a part of the Apocrypha in Additions to the Book of Esther,[21] and are considered canonical in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions.

A theme seen throughout Esther is an ongoing conflict between Israel and the Amalekites (2:5; 3:1-6; 9:5-10), something that originally occurred during the Exodus (Exodus 17:8-16; Deuteronomy 25:17-19) and continued throughout Israel’s history (1 Samuel 15; 1 Chronicles 4:43). The author of Esther views the Amalekites as the epitome and/or sum of Israel’s enemies, with Haman depicted as a descendant of King Agag.[22]

The Book of Esther also relies heavily upon the Jewish people being portrayed as God’s faithful remnant. Evangelical Christian theologians are very keen to note that the continued existence of the Jewish people demonstrated in Esther is imperative due to the promises of the coming Messiah.[23] Some also suggest a reliance upon the themes seen in the story of Joseph regarding God’s preservation of the Jews in Susa (2:3-4, 9, 21-23; 3:4; 4:14; 6:1, 8, 14: 8:6).

It is undeniable that Esther confronts us with a major Tanach example of Israel interacting with other cultures. Our principal protagonist is actually named Hadassah meaning “myrtle,” but is given the Persian name Ester meaning “star” (2:7).[24] Understanding Persian history and society is imperative to properly grasp the concepts in Esther, as great banquets are the focal points of much of the story. We also do see drunkenness and lewd sexuality in Esther.[25] A common misconception about the evil Haman “hanging” is that he was hanged on a gallows similar to today, when in the Persian context it was probably impalement followed by the public display or “hanging” of the corpse for the public to see. The writing style of Esther is undoubtedly affected by Persian techniques.[26]

The major discussion of the validity of the Book of Esther often concerns the absence of any direct reference to “God” (EXP).[27] Many have considered the text to be entirely secular, and not religious at all. Esther had difficulty gaining canonical status in both the Jewish and Christian theological traditions,[28] and the Qumran community did not consider it canonical at all. Some Jewish and Christian scholars have considered the book grossly immoral.[29] Neither Esther nor Mordecai make a reference to the Torah or Tanach, or demonstrate that they follow the “commandments,” per se.

In response to these claims against Esther, it is proposed that God not being mentioned directly is so that this book could circulate more freely among Jews in Persia.[30] Many conclude that the anonymity of God is a literary device used to heighten the reader’s sensitivity to Him working through the life circumstances of human beings.[31] It is only by God’s faithfulness to His people that they are saved, as He moves on the hearts of the protagonists. The Book of Esther has offered Jews throughout history a great deal of hope during times of distress.[32]

The Book of Esther is often very important for Messianics during the season of Purim. It causes all of us to consider the role of anti-Semitism in today’s world, and the role that we can play to combat it. It most certainly causes us to consider how God works through the human condition without us often seeing. Esther gives us a critical lesson of how God can use us to save and/or help His people during times of terrible distress. Esther is a great text that teaches us about the salvation history of God,[33] and at the same time asks us questions about how He can use both men and women to accomplish it.

Bibliography

Baldwin, J.G. “Esther,” in NBCR, pp 412-420.

Berlin, Adele. “Esther,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1623-1639.

Crawford, Sidnie White. “Esther,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 689-701.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Esther,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 189-197.

Harrington, Clyde E. “Esther, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 326-327.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Esther,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1085-1102.

Harvey, D. “Esther, Book of,” in IDB, 2:149-151.

Huey, Jr., F.B. “Esther,” in EXP, 4:775-839.

Humphreys, W.L. “Esther, Book of,” in IDBSup, pp 279-281.

Moore, Carey A. “Esther, Book of,” in ABD, 2:633-643.

Payne, D.F. “Esther, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:157-159.

Rashkow, Ilona N. “Esther, Book of,” in EDB, pp 427-429.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Esther

[1] D. Harvey, “Esther, Book of,” in IDB, 2:150.

[2] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1087-1088.

[3] D.F. Payne, “Esther, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:158; F.B. Huey, Jr., “Esther,” in EXP, 4:776; Dillard and Longman, 191.

[4] “The Men of the Great Assembly wrote Ezekiel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Daniel, and the scroll of Esther” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[5] W.L. Humphreys, “Esther, Book of,” in IDBSup, 280.

[6] Adele Berlin, “Esther,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1623.

[7] Harvey, “Esther, Book of,” in IDB, 2:151.

[8] Humphreys, “Esther, Book of,” in IDBSup, 279.

[9] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1090.

[10] Harvey, “Esther, Book of,” in IDB, 2:151; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1088-1090; J.G. Baldwin, “Esther,” in NBCR, 412.

[11] Payne, “Esther, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:158.

[12] Baldwin, in NBCR, 413; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1090-1092.

[13] Ilona N. Rashkow, “Esther, Book of,” in EDB, 428; cf. Payne, “Esther, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:159; Dillard and Longman, pp 191-192.

[14] Baldwin, in NBCR, 413.

[15] Clyde E. Harrington, “Esther, Book of,” in NIDB, 326; Payne, “Esther, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:159.

[16] Carey A. Moore, “Esther, Book of,” in ABD, 2:638.

[17] Ibid., 2:641.

[18] Baldwin, in NBCR, 412.

[19] Huey, in EXP, 4:776.

[20] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1101-1102; Huey, in EXP, 4:781-782; Moore, “Esther, Book of,” in ABD, 2:641-642.

[21] Payne, “Esther, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:158.

[22] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1085.

[23] Dillard and Longman, 197.

[24] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1085; Rashkow, “Esther, Book of,” in EDB, 427.

[25] Moore, “Esther, Book of,” in ABD, 2:633; Berlin, “Esther,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1623.

[26] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1096; Rashkow, “Esther, Book of,” in EDB, 428.

[27] Huey, in EXP, 4:784-785.

[28] Harvey, “Esther, Book of,” in IDB, 2:151; Payne, “Esther, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:158; Huey, in EXP, 4:779; Moore, “Esther, Book of,” in ABD, 2:635-638; Rashkow, “Esther, Book of,” in EDB, 427-428; Dillard and Longman, 189.

[29] Moore, “Esther, Book of,” in ABD, 2:635.

[30] Harrington, “Esther, Book of,” in NIDB, 326.

[31] Harvey, “Esther, Book of,” in IDB, 2:150.

[32] Baldwin, in NBCR, 412.

[33] Dillard and Longman, 197.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON ESTHER:

1. Explain the significance of Esther entering onto the scene as a queen to King Xerxes.

2. What do you believe that the figure of Haman fully represents? Consider his plan to annihilate the Jews in Persia.

3. What was the “offense” that enraged Haman against Mordecai?

4. Why do you think that there is no specific mention of God in the Book of Esther?

5. Do you believe it is Biblically appropriate to commemorate the Feast of Purim? Why or why not?

6. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Esther seriously?

REFLECTION ON ESTHER’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Esther:

BOOK OF DANIEL

Approximate date: 539-530 B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); 500s B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate); 500s-300s B.C.E. (Left)

Time period: Southern Kingdom of Judah in Babylonian Exile

Author: Daniel and/or a close associate (Right, some conservative-moderate); anonymous writers and editors (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Location of prophet/author(s): Babylon (Right, some conservative-moderate); Land of Israel (some conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Southern Kingdom Israelites during the Babylonian exile (Right, some conservative-moderate); Southern Kingdom Israelites after the Babylonian exile (some

conservative-moderate, Left)

People:

Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, Azariah (Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, Abednego), Nebuchadnezzar, Arioch (commander of king’s guard), “a son of the gods” or “the Son of God” (KJV),[1] Belshazzar, Darius the Mede (son of Xerxes),[2] Gabriel, Michael

People mentioned:

Jehoiakim, Ashpenaz (court official), Cyrus, Medes and Persians, Jeremiah, leaders of Ammon, Lybians, Nubians

Places:

Babylon, Jerusalem, Susa, Elam, Greece

Places mentioned:

Judah, Ulai Canal, Tigris, Egypt, Edom, Moab

Key Themes and Events:

Jerusalem is sacked by Nebuchadnezzar and exiles are taken to Babylon / Daniel and his colleagues become servants of the Babylonian court / Nebuchadnezzar prepares to execute men in his court who cannot interpret his dream / Daniel is able to recount Nebuchadnezzar’s dream to him / Daniel speaks to Nebuchadnezzar about his dream of the statue (2:31-45) describing four kingdoms / Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges Daniel as one filled with wisdom and appoints him ruler of the province of Babylon / Nebuchadnezzar constructs a giant gold image for all to worship / Daniel’s friends Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego—Jews—refuse to worship the idol / the three are thrown bound into a blazing furnace / a fourth person is seen in the blazing furnace / Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego survive, and Nebuchadnezzar promotes them in rank in the province of Babylon, decreeing that their God has power / Nebuchadnezzar has a dream of a tree, and Daniel tells him that it describes his downfall / Nebuchadnezzar loses his sanity until acknowledging the power of Daniel’s God / the new king, Belshazzar, orders that wine be poured into goblets taken from Jerusalem’s Temple / Belshazzar’s party witnesses a hand writing on a wall, and Daniel tells the king that his kingdom will fall / Babylon falls to Persia / Daniel is appointed as a Persian administrator, earning enemies because of his excellence in service / a decree goes forth from the Persian court: no prayers to any god or man but the king for thirty days / Daniel prays three times a day with his windows open toward Jerusalem / the king of Persia makes every effort to spare Daniel / Daniel is thrown into a den of lions, surviving a night / the king of Persia is relieved to see Daniel, and his accusers are thrown into the same den of lions / Daniel’s dream of four beasts is revealed (7:2-14) / Daniel is distressed over the fourth beast, a final kingdom on Earth that the Ancient of Days Himself will defeat / Daniel receives a vision of a ram and a goat (8:1-14) / Daniel is told by Gabriel how Greece (by name) will overtake Persia in the future / Daniel prays for the exile spoken of by Jeremiah to be over / Daniel is told that seventy “weeks” or “sevens” have been decreed to accomplish the full restoration of Israel / the angel Michael appears before Daniel to tell him what is to come in the future / Michael describes events from the “Book of Truth” and how Persia will be ultimately defeated by Greece / a king will arise who exalts himself, wanting to be worshipped as a god / there will be a future resurrection of both the righteous and unrighteous / Daniel’s prophecies are to be sealed until the end

Key Scriptures: Daniel 1:17; 2:21-22, 27, 47; 3:16-18, 25; 4:27, 33-35; 5:5-6, 25-29; 6:6-9, 14, 21-24, 26-28; 7:13-14, 23-25; 9:4-19, 24-27; 11:36-37, 39, 45; 12:1-3, 6-7, 9-10 / Daniel’s life (1:1-6:28); Daniel’s visions (7:1-12:13)

Theological Summary: The Book of Daniel (Heb. Dani’el) is one of the most difficult to understand texts of the Tanach, and is highly debated among most interpreters. Daniel is placed after the Book of Ezekiel in the Christian book order of the Old Testament, reckoned among the Major Prophets, but is a part of the Writings in Jewish tradition. Daniel is prophetic/apocalyptic in nature, but its words were delivered by one who was a government official.[3] Daniel was an exile taken to Babylon at a young age, who was renamed Belteshazzar and trained for the royal service (1:1-6).[4] While in Babylon he became an interpreter of dreams and signs, and was shown visions of both the future of the world and destiny of Israel.

Internally in the text, Daniel is afforded some level of involvement of delivering its prophecies (8:1; 9:2; 10:2). While many conservatives consider him to be the author of the book, others concede that a close associate may have been responsible for writing down or compiling his prophecies.[5] Yeshua the Messiah certainly refers to Daniel speaking prophecies (Matthew 24:15), validating Danielic involvement. The language style of Daniel, mixed Hebrew and Aramaic, is thought by conservatives to suggest an earlier, rather than a later dating of the text, likely sometime around 530 B.C.E. The Book of Daniel does demonstrate a unity of style,[6] leading many to conclude “the internal evidence leads us to believe that Daniel was the source of the vision reports of Daniel 7-12” (Dillard and Longman).[7]

Up until the Twentieth Century, Danielic involvement with this book was not severely challenged, until the rise of the German critical movement.[8] Liberals today totally discount any kind of genuine Danielic involvement in Daniel. Most liberals suggest that Daniel is a fictional text because its prophecies are too predictive and specific,[9] with the character Daniel perhaps being based on the “Daniel” mentioned in Ezekiel 14:14 and 28:3. In this schema, the figure of Daniel is a legendary character to be relegated to various “court tales” (ABD),[10] of which there is no historically reliable information. A few liberal commentators have suggested a comparison between Daniel’s existence and that of Britain’s King Arthur.[11]

Liberals often suggest that because of the specificity of Daniel’s prophecies, that the Book of Daniel must be a work of fiction probably written during the Maccabean revolt of 164 B.C.E.[12] Thus, when Daniel prophesies concerning various abominations, what is to be considered are not events to come in the future, but events that have already taken place via the sacking of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Seleucids. In this schema, the Book of Daniel is nothing more than a “pious fraud” similar to the Book of Deuteronomy, as advocated by proponents of the JEDP documentary hypothesis. Liberals do not take Daniel very seriously, concluding “The author of Daniel tried to calculate the time of the end and failed” (IDB).[13]

There are a few conservatives who embrace the liberal propositions concerning the Book of Daniel. Some, perhaps seeing the abuses of various prophecy teachers, who today give a great deal of attention to Daniel, have ended up adopting the position that the “prophecies” were given after the fact.[14] This is further complicated by some historical issues surrounding Daniel, as extant data from the Seventh and Sixth Centuries B.C.E. is probably not as complete as it could be.[15] However, conservatives supporting genuine Danielic involvement rightly suggest that the lack of information we have is not sufficient grounds to claim pseudonymity.

The Book of Daniel has some unique linguistic differences, likely accounting for a composition somewhere in Babylon. 1:1-2:4a and chs. 8-12 are written in Hebrew, with 2:4b-7:28 being written in Aramaic. Liberals commonly claim that this is evidence for a later composition of the text. Conservatives respond by saying that the differences in vocabulary are not significant when compared to the mixing of other Ancient Near Eastern languages in various documents.[16] It is significant that Hebrew and Aramaic are both Semitic relatives, and interactions between the Jews and Babylonians necessitates the existence of loan words.[17]

The Greek Septuagint version of Daniel includes some notable additions: the Story of Susanna, the Story of Bel and the Dragon, and the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews. All of these books are included in the Apocrypha. A fair amount of agreement exists between the Hebrew Masoretic Text and LXX versions of Daniel.[18] Fragments of Daniel were discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, and bear some significant resemblance to the MT.[19]

The text of the Book of Daniel is divided into two large parts: historical narrative (chs. 1-6) and apocalyptic revelation (chs. 7-12). Believing the stated location of the events to actually be Babylon, then Daniel’s prophecies would have been composed to encourage the Jewish exiles in Babylon who could have thought that the Lord abandoned them.[20] Daniel reminded them that God was not unfaithful to His people, and that the punishment meted upon Israel was to be lifted (9:2).

A major thrust of Daniel’s prophecies is to remind God’s people that He is sovereign over human affairs: “This sentence is by the decree of the angelic watchers and the decision is a command of the holy ones, in order that the living may know that the Most High is ruler over the realm of mankind, and bestows it on whom He wishes and sets over it the lowliest of men” (4:17; cf. 5:21).[21] Daniel portrays God as being triumphant (7:11, 26-27; 8:25; 9:27), something that is climaxed later in the Book of Revelation (Revelation 11:15; cf. Daniel 2:44; 7:27). God’s people are stirred to anticipate a world to come where the battle of good and evil has come to resolution,[22] with evil being defeated.

For Believers in Messiah Yeshua, Daniel reminds us that the Messiah will be triumphant over the world. The words of Daniel significantly affect the symbolism we see in a text like Revelation. However, the ideas in Daniel also impact the history of the Apostolic Scriptures, its authors, and concepts displayed by them such as the antimessiah/antichrist, and most significantly the Second Coming.[23]

Jewish theological positions on the Book of Daniel have helped lead some interpreters to some of the liberal conclusions that are frequently made today. The ancient Jewish testimony regarding Daniel is that he was considered to be a real prophet with real prophecies for the future (Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 10.266-268; 4Q).[24] Later Rabbinic tradition, however, had difficulty embracing Daniel as a prophet. This largely came in response to how various words in Daniel were interpreted as favoring the Messiahship of Yeshua of Nazareth.[25] The Jewish theology of the Talmud affords Daniel the role of a seer (b.Megillah 3a; b.Sanhedrin 94a), but not a prophet.[26] The composition of Daniel was attributed to the figures of the Great Synagogue (b.Bava Batra 15a),[27] not Daniel himself or one of his associates. Consequently because of these factors, the Book of Daniel has not had a great impact on more contemporary Jewish theology, but words in Daniel are used in various liturgical prayers.

The Book of Daniel has impacted Christian theology significantly more than Jewish theology, particularly Christology as it concerns the Messiahship of Yeshua of Nazareth. Evangelicals today widely consider Daniel to be composed of authentic Danielic words and prophecies.[28] However, even though Daniel is considered to have important words regarding Yeshua—particularly its distinct “Son of Man” references (7:13; cf. Matthew 24:30) and the fact that the doctrine of resurrection is based in Daniel (12:2)[29]—significant variance exists regarding how its future prophecies are to be interpreted.

Some evangelical Christian scholars interpret Daniel as predicting the prominence of the Church following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.,[30] with the remainder of Daniel’s prophecies given some kind of “allegorical” view. Many other evangelicals regard Daniel’s vision of the four beasts (7:23) to portray the major empires of ancient humanity (Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome), culminating in a final global empire led by an antimessiah/antichrist figure—only to be defeated by the Messiah.[31] The prophecy of Daniel’s seventy “sevens” (9:20-27) is often viewed as culminating in a seven-year tribulation period.[32]

Today’s Messianic movement generally leans toward some form of futuristic, pre-millennial view of Daniel, consistent with what is seen in much of evangelicalism. A significant amount of engagement has occurred among Messianics and parts of Daniel, particularly with those who place a high degree of emphasis on Bible prophecy. However, it is notable that some Messianic views of Daniel often shift—and are primarily designed to make the text fit current events. Thus, to what degree Messianic engagement with Daniel may be considered responsible exegesis can be questioned.

Yeshua the Messiah is clear that no person knows the exact day or time of His return (Mark 13:32-36; Acts 1:7-8). No interpreter should be dogmatic with the numbers of Daniel, but instead entreat God for insight and wisdom for how to deal with its prophecies (12:3-4). In the future, it is likely that Messianic engagement of Daniel will take into consideration more of the critical views present, how Daniel would have encouraged those living in Babylon and/or the Maccabean period, and certainly how we can have a stable view of the text that does not diminish the importance of its future prophecies.

Bibliography

Archer, Jr., Gleason L. “Daniel,” in EXP, 7:3-157.

Collins, John J. “Daniel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:29-37.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Daniel,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 329-352.

Di Lella, A.A. “Daniel,” in IDBSup, pp 205-207.

Harrison, R.K. “The Book of Daniel,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1105-1134.

____________. “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:859-866.

Frost, S.B. “Daniel,” in IDB, 1:761-768.

Henze, Matthias. “Daniel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 1231-1252.

Payne, J. Barton. “Daniel, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 253-254.

Provan, Iain. “Daniel,” in ECB, pp 665-675.

Wilbanks, Pete F. “Daniel, Book of,” in EDB, pp 314-315.

Wills, Lawrence M. “Daniel,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1640-1665.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Daniel

[1] Ara. bar-Elahin; Grk LXX(a) angelou Theou; LXX(b) huiō Theou.

[2] Not the same Xerxes as seen in the Book of Esther.

[3] J. Barton Payne, “Daniel, Book of,” in NIDB, 253.

[4] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1105.

[5] Gleason L. Archer, Jr., “Daniel,” in EXP, 7:4.

[6] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1107-1009; Payne, “Daniel, Book of,” in NIDB, 253; R.K. Harrison, “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:862.

[7] Dillard and Longman, 330.

[8] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1111.

[9] Harrison, “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:862.

[10] John J. Collins, “Daniel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:29-30; Matthias Henze, “Daniel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, 1231.

[11] S.B. Frost, “Daniel,” in IDB, 1:761.

[12] Frost, “Daniel,” in IDB, 1:766-767; Archer, in EXP, 7:6-8; Collins, “Daniel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:33-34.

[13] Frost, “Daniel,” in IDB, 1:768.

[14] Dillard and Longman, 331.

[15] Dillard and Longman, pp 333-337; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1112-1127.

[16] Harrison, “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:860-861.

[17] Archer, in EXP, 7:23-24.

[18] Frost, “Daniel,” in IDB, 1:763; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1133-1134.

[19] Collins, “Daniel, Book of,” in ABD, 2:29.

[20] Archer, in EXP, 7:3.

[21] Dillard and Longman, pp 348-351.

[22] Iain Provan, “Daniel,” in ECB, 665.

[23] Archer, in EXP, 7:10-12.

[24] Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1107; Harrison, “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:861-862.

[25] Lawrence M. Wills, “Daniel,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1642.

[26] Frost, “Daniel,” in IDB, 1:763; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1106.

[27] “The Men of the Great Assembly wrote Ezekiel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Daniel, and the scroll of Esther” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[28] Harrison, “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:861.

[29] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1131.

[30] Harrison, “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:865.

[31] Provan, in ECB, 665; cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1129-1130; Dillard and Longman, pp 351-352.

[32] Payne, “Daniel, Book of,” in NIDB, 253; Harrison, “Daniel, Book of,” in ISBE, 1:865.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON DANIEL:

1. Describe the significance of Daniel as a servant to both the king of Babylon and the king of Persia.

2. What do you consider Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of the statue to represent?

3. Summarize the trauma of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the fiery furnace. What happened?

4. By which circumstances did Babylon fall to Persia?

5. Why was Daniel thrown into the lions’ den?

6. What do you consider Daniel’s vision of the four beasts to represent?

7. What do you think the seventy “sevens” or seventy “weeks” prophecy means?

8. How much of the prophecy in Daniel chs. 8-11 do you believe concerns the Maccabean period and/or the more distant future?

9. How important is the Book of Daniel with it including the only direct reference to the resurrection (12:1-2) in the Tanach?

10. Do you believe the Book of Daniel is a product of the Sixth Century B.C.E. (Babylonian-Persian period), or the later Second Century B.C.E. (Maccabean period)? Describe your thoughts.

11. Do you believe that today’s Messianic community takes the message and themes of Daniel seriously? Why or why not?

REFLECTION ON DANIEL’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Daniel:

BOOK OF EZRA-NEHEMIAH

Approximate date: 440 B.C.E.-Ezra, 430 B.C.E.-Nehemiah (Right, some conservative-moderate); late 400s-early 300s (some conservative-moderate, some Left); 350-250 B.C.E. (some Left)

Time period: return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon, reestablishing a presence in Jerusalem

Author: Ezra (Right; some conservative-moderate); an anonymous Chronicler or historian (some conservative-moderate, some Left); unidentified redactors (some Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel, probably Jerusalem (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Jewish exiles having returned from Babylonian captivity (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

People:

Ezra: Cyrus, Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon (2:3-64), Sheshbazzar, Jeshua (son of Jozadak), Zerubbabel (son of Shealtiel), Kadmiel, sons of Asaph, Darius, Ahasuerus (Xerxes), Bishlam, Mithredath, Tabeel, Rehum, Shimshai, Elamites, Haggai, Zechariah, Tattenai, Shethar-Bozenai, Ezra (son of Seraiah), Ezra’s ancestors (7:1-3), family leaders who returned with Ezra (8:1-14), learned figures who returned with Ezra (8:16-20), Meremoth (son of Uriah), Eleazar (son of Phinehas), Noadiah (son of Binnui), neighboring peoples of the Jews (Cannanites, Hittites, Perizzites, Jebusites, Ammonites, Moabites, Egyptians, Amorites), Shecaniah (son of Jehiel), Jehohanan (son of Eliashib), Jonathan (son of Asahel), Jahzeiah (son of Tikvah), Meshullam (son of Berekiah), Shabbethai, priests and singers who had taken foreign wives (10:18-22), Levites and singers who had taken foreign wives (10:23-24), other returnees who had taken foreign wives (10:25-43); Nehemiah: Nehemiah (son of Hacaliah), Hanani, Artaxerxes, Asaph, Sanballat the Horonite, Tobiah the Ammonite, Geshem the Arab, builders of the wall (3:1-28), Shemaiah (son of Delaiah), Noadiah (prophetess), Shecaniah (son of Arah), Hananiah, Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon (7:6-73), Jewish leaders who stood beside Ezra (8:4), Levites who instructed the people in the Torah (8:7), those who affirmed the confessions of the Jewish exiles (10:1-29), the new residents of Jerusalem (11:5-36), the priests who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-25), leaders of Judah with choir members (12:31-36), Zadok the scribe, Pedaiah, Hanun (son of Zacur, son of Mattaniah), Joiada (son of Eliashib)

People mentioned:

Jeremiah, Nebuchadnezzar, David, Esarhaddon (king of Assyria), Ashurbanipal, Iddo, Moses, Joshua, Abram (Abraham), Pharaoh, Og, Solomon, Asaph, Aaron, Baalam

Places:

Persia, Jerusalem, Sidon, Tyre, Judah, Susa (Tripolis), Erech, Babylon, Samaria, Trans-Euphrates, citadel of Elbatana, Media, Ahava, Casiphia, Valley Gate, Jackal Well, Dung Gate, Fountain Gate, Kings Pool, Sheep Gate, Tower of the Hundred, Tower of Hananel, Jericho, Fish Gate, Tekoa, Jeshanah Gate, Tower of the Ovens, Pool of Siloam, King’s Garden, Beth Zur, House of the Heroes, Keilah, hill of Opel, wall of Ophel, Horse Gate, East Gate, Inspection Gate, Samaria, Ashdod, plain of Ono, villages of the Netophathites, Beth Gilgal, Geba, Azmaveth, Broad Wall, Ephraim Gate, Ammon, Moab

Places mentioned:

Ur of the Chaldeans, Egypt, Red Sea, Mount Sinai, Sihon, Heshbon, Bashan

Key Themes and Events:

Ezra: King Cyrus of Persia issues a decree for the Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem / the exiles who return present offerings to the Lord at the site of the Temple / the neighbors of the returned exiles oppose the rebuilding of the Temple / a letter is sent to the king of Persia, informing him that the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple will be a cause of problems / the reconstruction project is halted / the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah cause the Jews to resume reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple / King Darius instructs that the reconstruction is not to be halted or interfered with, and that it is to be paid from the Persian treasury / the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple is completed during the reign of the Persian King Darius / Passover is celebrated at the Jerusalem Temple / Ezra the priest makes his way from Babylon to Jerusalem / Ezra the priest is sent to Jerusalem with the commendation of the Persian king / Ezra prepares to return to Jerusalem, collecting the needed monies and sacred objects / Ezra and his cohort arrive in Jerusalem / Ezra is distraught over the Jewish intermarriage with pagan neighbors, issuing a great prayer of lament to God (9:5-15) / the majority of the Jewish men who had taken foreign wives repent of their sin / a listing of people who had taken foreign wives is listed / Nehemiah: while in the Persian city of Susa, Nehemiah is informed of the decrepit state of Jerusalem and its walls / Nehemiah entreats the Lord to restore the Jewish exiles / Nehemiah, cupbearer of King Artaxerxes, is asked by the king why he is sad / King Artaxerxes grants Nehemiah the permission to go to Jerusalem / Nehemiah surveys the condition of Jerusalem, realizing how serious it was to rebuild the city walls / the city walls and gates are repaired and rebuilt / Sanballat and his cohort plot to stop the reconstruction project / Nehemiah urges the people to have faith in the Lord, and he sees that the laborers are guarded by armed soldiers while working / Nehemiah rebukes those Jews who charged interest to their neighbors so they can pay their taxes / being made the Persian governor, Nehemiah shows a beneficence that his predecessors did not show, sharing his table with his fellow countrymen / Sanballat and Tobiah try to raise up trouble, as the reconstruction of Jerusalem’s wall is said by them to be a prelude to revolt / Nehemiah does not allow himself to be intimidated by threats / many of the Jewish nobles had pledged allegiance to Sanballat, due to some intermarrying / a census of the Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon is given / Ezra publicly reads from the Torah to a massive crowd assembled / the Jewish people celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles (for the first time since Joshua) / the Jewish returnees publicly confess the goodness of God toward Israel, and their corporate sins against Him / the Jewish returnees publicly commit themselves to fulfill the social requirements of the Torah / a listing of Jerusalem’s new inhabitants is given / a listing of the priests who returned with Zerubbabel is given / significant rejoicing and celebration occurs to rededicate the Jerusalem walls / Nehemiah returns to King Artaxerxes, later learning that the priest Eliashib had given Tobiah a place in God’s House / Nehemiah places trusted individuals in charge of the Temple storerooms / Nehemiah orders that the gates of Jerusalem be closed on the Sabbath, prohibiting commerce / Nehemiah purges pagan intermarriage from the Jewish people, urging them to remember the sin of Solomon

Key Scriptures: Ezra 1:2-4; 3:11-13; 6:6-12, 21-22; 7:27-28; 9:13-15; 10:2-3, 10-11; Nehemiah 2:17-18, 20; 4:8-9; 6:15-17; 8:1-3, 6, 9, 14-17; 9:32-35; 10:29-31; 13:15-22, 25-27 / Return Led by Zerubbabel (Ezra 1:1-6:22); Return Led by Ezra (7:1-10:44); Rebuilding the Wall (Nehemiah 1:1-7:73); Reforming the People (8:1-13:31)

Theological Summary: The story of Ezra and Nehemiah begins where Chronicles ends, detailing the religious and social developments of the Second Temple Jewish community having returned from Babylonian exile. Ancient tradition regards these texts as a single book[1] from two distinct perspectives: Ezra dealing with the reestablishment of the Temple, and Nehemiah focusing on the reconstruction and restoration of Jerusalem. The text is named for its two principal protagonists: Ezra and Nehemiah. The material covers events from the Fifth to Fourth Centuries B.C.E. Its history closes the events of the Tanach or Old Testament canon.

Both Josephus and the Talmud refer to Ezra, but not to Nehemiah as a separate book, indicating that they were unified as one book sometime by the First Century B.C.E. The oldest copies of the Greek Septuagint considered it a single book,[2] with the division between Ezra and Nehemiah not occurring in printed Hebrew Bibles until the Fifteenth Century.[3]

Christian tradition started separating the two books of Ezra and Nehemiah in the Second-Third Centuries C.E. It places Ezra and Nehemiah among the histories, after Chronicles. The Jewish book order of the Tanach places Ezra-Nehemiah as the second to last book of the Tanach, before Chronicles, likely because it was canonized prior to Chronicles.[4] Some printed Hebrew Bibles from the Thirteenth Century do actually place it after Chronicles.[5] Ezra-Nehemiah exists in two Greek forms: 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras[6] appearing in the Apocrypha, which can be confusing for many if these texts are not referred to as the “Greek Ezra.”

Many conservatives agree that the author of Ezra-Nehemiah is the same author as Chronicles,[7] but others do not.[8] Jewish tradition in the Talmud ascribes authorship to Ezra (b.Bava Batra 15a),[9] and this is adhered to by some Christian conservatives.[10] Conservatives are not unified on whether or not Ezra-Nehemiah was fully written by Ezra the priest, or an unidentified Chronicler/historian. Ezra may have been the author of the personal narrations we see in the text.[11] Likewise, Nehemiah may have been the author of his memoirs, later being brought together by a Chronicler or historian in the late Fifth or early Fourth Centuries B.C.E.[12]

All conservatives recognize that the author of Ezra-Nehemiah surely had to use sources in his composition, including genealogies, censes of returnees, and varied historical records and correspondence.[13] Oral sources were probably also used in the composition of Ezra-Nehemiah. However, the organization of this data in the text is not without debate, particularly in regard to the return of Ezra and Nehemiah to Jerusalem.[14]

Many liberals today consider Ezra-Nehemiah to be a separate work from Chronicles because of differing theological themes, notably that “Chronicles’ pervasive use of immediate retribution as a theological lodestone is absent in Ezra-Nehemiah” (EDB).[15] Earlier liberals considered both Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles to be products of the Chronicler.[16] Liberals generally argue for a mixing of sources between Ezra and Nehemiah, with parts of Nehemiah appearing in the middle of Ezra and vice versa. They doubt some of the historical claims of Ezra-Nehemiah,[17] and many liberals have taken it upon themselves to reconstruct its “fragments” (IDBSup).[18] In response, conservatives do not deny that there are some structuring problems in Ezra,[19] but not as many in Nehemiah,[20] and certainly not enough to doubt the veracity of the text.

While many liberals severely doubt the historicity of Ezra-Nehemiah,[21] current trends among critical scholars indicate that this is changing. Problems with historicity may have to do with the names of contemporary leaders being repeated among several generations, and them actually being different people. Some scholars have not known who to associate with the text of Ezra-Nehemiah,[22] based on an interpretation of extant external data available. “[T]he overall perspective of the book and the general contours of its report have gained credence in recent years” (EDB),[23] based on an interpretation of available outside information that agrees with Biblical sources.[24] This affects the dating of Ezra-Nehemiah anywhere from the Fifth to Fourth Centuries B.C.E., with most conservatives and liberals now favoring some date in the 400s,[25] even though some liberals favor a dating as late as the 200s.[26]

Nehemiah 1:1 indicates that Nehemiah may have been a separate composition, later redacted into Ezra, but this is strongly debated. “The book of Nehemiah can be read in one of two ways, on its own or as a single unit with Ezra. If we read it with Ezra, it forms a single story beginning with the initial return under Cyrus and leading on to a time about a century later when the new community is threatened in various ways” (ECB).[27] If we read the texts separately, then the protagonists Ezra and Nehemiah had nothing to do with one another, each performing entirely independent works. It is preferable that readers maintain some kind of unity between Ezra and Nehemiah and its characters, with possible unity between Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah existing in some form. Lists feature predominantly in Ezra-Nehemiah, somehow linking it to what is seen in Chronicles.[28] Parts of Ezra-Nehemiah are written in first person, and other sections are written in third person. The final author or redactor of Ezra-Nehemiah is still probably the same person.

A common liberal argument concerning Ezra-Nehemiah is that Ezra presents himself as the “new Moses,”[29] and this view is commonly given as support for the JEDP documentary hypothesis of the Torah. Even if one accepts principal Mosaic authorship/composition of the Pentateuch, the Talmud accredits Ezra with placing the Torah in its final form (b.Sanhedrin 21b).[30]

Some “scholars also [consider] the possibility that Ezra was a major, perhaps the major redactor of the Pentateuch” (EDB),[31] meaning that Ezra played a role in the text that we possess today adding some additional information. Any conservative study of the Torah cannot disregard this factor and the role of Ezra in critically examining the data in the Torah.

The language of Ezra-Nehemiah is a mix of Hebrew and Aramaic.[32] The Masoretic Text of Ezra-Nehemiah is relatively well preserved with no major textual difficulties.[33] There are two major witnesses to Ezra-Nehemiah in Greek: 1 Esdras is a paraphrase of the Hebrew and 2 Esdras is the relatively literal translation. 1 Esdras appears to reflect an older Hebrew version.[34] The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah are firmly rooted within Persian history,[35] with Aramaic parts of this work largely relating to the decree of Cyrus and other interactions between the Jews and the Persians.[36]

The major theme seen in Ezra-Nehemiah is the restoration of God’s people from Babylonian exile. While political independence was not achieved, the Jewish exiles who returned are able to rebuild the Temple and resume its sacrificial cultus, getting the people to return to the instruction of the Torah.[37] God used pagan powers to judge Israel, but now He uses pagan powers to restore the Jews to their homeland. The repatriation of the exiles to the Promised Land was opposed by their Samaritan neighbors, and we see a major problem of mixed marriages. The restored community still needed help in trying to figure out its identity. There is no longer an emphasis on just the monarchy or the Temple as seen in previous works, but now on the holiness of the people themselves.[38] The prophetic Books of Haggai and Zechariah provide supplementary details on the social picture of post-exilic Judah.[39]

Ezra-Nehemiah gives us the first picture of post-exilic Judah, and the beginnings of Second Temple Judaism.[40] Ezra encourages the Jewish exiles who returned to reclaim and reidentify with their heritage, with some considering him to be “the father of Judaism” (NBCR).[41] Ezra serves a major role as “an authoritative scribe and priest, as well as a kind of proto-Rabbi who also has the authority of a prophet. His legal innovations are not seen as such, but are depicted as proper interpretation of eternally binding Mosaic law…This principle is at the heart of rabbinic interpretation, and his authenticity is never called into question within rabbinic Judaism” (Jewish Study Bible).[42] In Ezra, we see the role of scribe largely taking over from the prophet,[43] and a focus on publicly teaching the Torah to the people (Nehemiah 10:29).[44]

What can Ezra-Nehemiah teach Messianic Believers today? Ezra and Nehemiah are two great figures of faith that we need not disregard as those to emulate. In our Tanach studies, is it possible that we have given too much attention to Moses at the expense of other important figures? Ezra-Nehemiah is notably not a text commonly discussed in Messianic circles, even though it has a message that is profoundly important for contemporary culture and Believers who are living in a world hostile to the gospel. Ezra-Nehemiah is a text that we must take more seriously to understand the salvation-history of Israel.

Bibliography

Amerding, C.E. “Ezra, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:264-266.

____________, and R.K. Harrison. “Nehemiah, Book of,” in Ibid., 3:514-516.

Barabas, Steven. “Ezra, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 339-340.

Cundall, A.E. “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in NBCR, pp 395-411.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Ezra-Nehemiah,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 179-187.

Eskenazi, Tamara Cohn. “Ezra, Book of,” in EDB, pp 449-451.

Grabbe, Lester L. “Ezra,” in ECB, pp 313-319.

______________. “Nehemiah,” in Ibid., pp 320-328.

Harris, R. Laird. “Nehemiah, Book of,” in NIDB, pp 700-701.

Harrison, R.K. “The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1135-1151.

Klein, Ralph W. “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” in ABD, 2:731-742.

____________. “Ezra,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 653-668.

____________. “Nehemiah,” in Ibid., pp 669-688.

Najman, Hindy. “Ezra,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1666-1687.

Pfeiffer, R.H. “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in IDB, 2:215-219.

Talmon, S. “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, pp 317-328.

Throntveit, Mark A. “Nehemiah, Book of,” in EDB, pp 955-957.

Yamauchi, Edwin M. “Ezra-Nehemiah,” in EXP, 4:565-771.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Ezra-Nehemiah

[1] Dillard and Longman, 179.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1135; S. Talmon, “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, 318.

[3] Edwin M. Yamauchi, “Ezra-Nehemiah,” in EXP, 4:572-573.

[4] R.H. Pfeiffer, “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in IDB, 1:216; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1136.

[5] Talmon, “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, 318.

[6] A.E. Cundall, “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in NBCR, 395; Ralph W. Klein, “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” in ABD, 2:732.

[7] Cundall, in NBCR, 395.

[8] Dillard and Longman, 181.

[9] “Ezra wrote the book that is called by his name and the genealogies of the book of Chronicles up to his own time. That accords with the position of Rab, for said R. Judah said Rab, ‘Ezra left Babylonia to go up to the land of Israel only after he had written his own genealogy.’ Who finished the book of Chronicles? Nehemiah b. Hachaliah” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[10] Dillard and Longman, 180.

[11] Steven Barabas, “Ezra, Book of,” in NIDB, 339.

[12] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1150.

[13] Harris, “Nehemiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 701; Cundall, in NBCR, 397-398; C.E. Amerding, “Ezra, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:264-265; C.E. Amerding and R.K. Harrison, “Nehemiah, Book of,” in Ibid., 3:515; Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:574-575; Klein, “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” in ABD, 2:732-734; Dillard and Longman, pp 184-185; Tamara Cohn Eskenazi, “Ezra, Book of,” in EDB, 956.

[14] Cundall, in NBCR, 396.

[15] Cohn Eskenazi, “Ezra, Book of,” in EDB, 956.

[16] Pfeiffer, “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in IDB, 2:215; Klein, “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” in ABD, 2:734-735.

[17] Pfeiffer, “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in IDB, 2:217; Talmon, “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, pp 319-321.

[18] Talmon, “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, pp 322-327; Klein, “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” in ABD, 2:735, 738-739.

[19] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1138-1139; Amerding, “Ezra, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:265; Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:571-572.

[20] Amerding and Harrison, “Nehemiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:515.

[21] Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:576-577.

[22] Amerding and Harrison, “Nehemiah, Book of,” in ISBE, 3:515; Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:570.

[23] Cohn Eskenazi, “Ezra, Book of,” in EDB, 449.

[24] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1141-1143; Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:566-570.

[25] Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:579-580; Cohn Eskenazi, “Ezra, Book of,” in EDB, 956.

[26] Lester L. Grabbe, “Ezra,” in ECB, 314.

[27] Lester L. Grabbe, “Nehemiah,” in ECB, 320.

[28] Talmon, “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, 321.

[29] Hindy Najman, “Ezra,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1669; Klein, “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” in ABD, 2:737-738.

[30] “Said Mar Zutra, and some say Mar Uqba, ‘In the beginning the Torah was given to Israel in Hebrew writing and in the Holy Language [of Hebrew]. Then it was given to them in the time of Ezra in Assyrian writing and in the Aramaic language. The Israelites chose for themselves Assyrian letters and the Holy Language and they left for common folk Hebrew letters and the Aramaic language’” (b.Sanhedrin 21b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[31] Cohn Eskenazi, “Ezra, Book of,” in EDB, 450.

[32] Barabas, “Ezra, Book of,” in NIDB, 339; Amerding, “Ezra, Book of,” in ISBE, 2:265.

[33] Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:586.

[34] Klein, “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” in ABD, 2:732.

[35] Talmon, “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, pp 318-319.

[36] Yamauchi, in EXP, 4:587.

[37] Cohn Eskenazi, “Ezra, Book of,” in EDB, 450.

[38] Dillard and Longman, 186.

[39] Pfeiffer, “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in IDB, 2:217; Cundall, in NBCR, 395.

[40] Talmon, “Ezra and Nehemiah (books and men),” in IDBSup, 317.

[41] Cundall, in NBCR, 398.

[42] Najman, in Jewish Study Bible, 1670.

[43] Harris, “Nehemiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 340.

[44] Harris, “Nehemiah, Book of,” in NIDB, 701.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON EZRA-NEHEMIAH:

1. Summarize the return of the Jewish exiles to the Land of Israel. Why do you think the king of Persia was so gracious in helping the Jews?

2. What challenges did the Jewish returnees face while reconstructing the Jerusalem Temple and Jerusalem city walls?

3. How significant a problem was the intermarriage of the Jewish returnees with their surrounding neighbors?

4. How important was the public declaration and commitment of the Jews to God?

5. Why does Ezra the priest read the Torah publicly to the people?

6. What are the similarities and differences between the service of Ezra and Nehemiah?

7. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of Ezra-Nehemiah?

REFLECTION ON EZRA-NEHEMIAH’S PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Book of Ezra-Nehemiah:

BOOKS OF CHRONICLES

Approximate date: late 400s B.C.E. (Right, conservative-moderate, some Left); 300s B.C.E. (some Left); 200s B.C.E (some Left)

Time period: additional material not covered in Samuel-Kings, detailing the rise and fall of Israel’s monarchy

Author: Ezra (Right); an anonymous Chronicler (conservative-moderate, some Left); unidentified redactors (some Left)

Location of author: Land of Israel, possibly Jerusalem (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

Target audience and their location: Jewish exiles having returned from Babylonian captivity (Right, conservative-moderate, Left)

People:

a listing of ancestors from Adam to Abraham (1 Chronicles 1:1-27), a listing of the descendants of Abraham’s immediate family (1 Chronicles 1:28-54), a listing of the descendants of Israel’s (Jacob’s) sons and the formation and establishment of the Twelve Tribes (1 Chronicles 2:1-7:40), the geneaological ancestors of King Saul (1 Chronicles 8:1-40; 9:35-44), a census of those taken from Jerusalem into Babylonian exile (1 Chronicles 9:1-34), Saul, Philistines, Dagon (deity), David, Jebusites, Joab (son of Zeruiah), David’s mighty men (1 Chronicles 11:10-47), warriors who joined David (1 Chronicles 12:1-22), armed men who joined David (1 Chronicles 12:23-40), Abinadab, Uzzah, Ahio, Obed-Edom, Hiram, David’s children (1 Chronicles 14:4-7), Zadok, Abiathar, leaders of Levitical families (1 Chronicles 15:11), musicians and singers (1 Chronicles 15:17-22), doorkeepers (1 Chronicles 15:23, 24b), trumpet blowers (1 Chronicles 15:24), Kenaniah, Michal, Levites appointed by David to minister before the Ark of the Covenant (1 Chronicles 16:5-6), Nathan, Moabites, Hadadezer, Arameans, Tou, Hadoram, Ammonites, Amalek(ites), Abishai (son of Zeruiah), Jehoshaphat (son of Ahilud), Shavsha, Benaiah (son of Jehoiada), Nahash, Hanun (son of Nahash), Shophach, Sibbecai the Hushathite, Sippai, Elhanan (son of Jair), Lahmi (brother of Goliath the Gittite), Jonathan (son of Shimea), Satan, Gad, Sidonians, Tyrians, Solomon, divisions of the Levites that will serve in the new Temple (1 Chronicles 23:7-23), subdivisions of the priests that will serve in the new Temple (1 Chronicles 24:1-19), the other Levites (1 Chronicles 24:20-31), the singers and musicians who will praise God in the new Temple (1 Chronicles 25:1-31), the gatekeepers who will watch over the new Temple (1 Chronicles 26:1-19), the treasurers who will watch over the funds for and of the new Temple (1 Chronicles 26:20-32), army divisions dedicated to the service of King David (1 Chronicles 27:1-24), King David’s overseers (1 Chronicles 27:25-33), Bezalel (son of Uri, son of Hur), Hittites, Huram-Abi, Jakin and Boaz (Temple pillars), Pharaoh’s daughter, queen of Sheba, Rehoboam, Jeroboam (son of Nebat), Adoniram, Shemaiah, Mahalath, Jerimoth, Abihail, Eliab, Rehoboam’s children with Mahalath (Jeush, Shemariah, Zaham), Maacah (daughter of Absalom), Rehoboam’s children with Maacah (Abijah, Attai, Ziza, Shelomith), Uriel (of Gibeah), Zerah the Cushite, Cushites, Azariah (son of Oded), Baasha, Ben-Hadad, Lybians, Jehoshaphat, Baals (deities), Jehoshaphat’s officials and Levitical teachers (2 Chronicles 17:7-8), fighting men under Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 17:14-17), Ahab, Micaiah (son of Imlah), Zedekiah (son of Kenaanah), Jehu (son of Hanani), Amariah, Zebadiah (son of Ishmael), Meunites, Jahaziel (son of Zechariah, son of Benaiah, son of Jeiel, son of Mattaniah), Azubah (daughter of Shilhi), Ahaziah, Athaliah, Hazael, Joram (son of Ahab), Jehu (son of Nimshi), Jehosheba, Joash, Jehoiada, unit commanders (2 Chronicles 23:1), Zibiah, Zechariah (son of Jehoiada), Zabad (son of Shimeath), Jehozabad (son of Shimrith), Amaziah, Jehoaddin, Edomites, Jehoash (son of Jehoahaz), Uzziah, Jecoliah, Jeiel, Maaseiah, Hananiah, Azariah (the priest), Isaiah (son of Amoz), Jerusha (daughter of Zadok), Pekah (son of Remaliah), Zicri, Maaseiah (the officer/official), Azrikam, Elkannah, Oded, leaders in Ephraim (2 Chronicles 28:12), Tiglath-Pileser, Hezekiah, Abijah (daughter of Zechariah), Levites who served under Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 29:12-14), Levites under Hezekiah in charge of Temple contributions (2 Chronicles 31:12-13), Kore (son of Imnah), Levites who distributed contributions (2 Chronicles 31:15), Sennacherib, envoys from Babylon, Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Shaphan (son of Azaliah), Maaseiah (an official), Joah (son of Joahaz), Hilkiah, Jahath, Obadiah, Ahikam (son of Shaphan), Abdon (son of Micah), Asaiah, Huldah, Shallum (son of Tokhath, son of Hasrah), Zechariah and Jehiel (Temple administrators), Levitical leaders (2 Chronicles 35:9), Neco, Jehoahaz, Eliakim (Jehoiakim), Nebuchadnezzar, Jehoiachin, Zedekiah, Jeremiah, Cyrus

People mentioned:

Adam, Abraham, Israel (Jacob), Jesse, Isaac, Moses, Samuel, Ahijah (the Shilonite), Iddo the seer, Asaph, Omri, Aaron, Elijah, Gad

Places:

Jerusalem, Mount Gilboa, Jabesh Gilead, Hebron, fortress of Zion, Ziklag, Jordan, Shihor River, Egypt, Lebo Hamath, Kiriath Jearim (Baalah), Perez Uzzah, Valley of Rephaim, Baal Perazim, Gath, Moab, Hamath, Euphrates River, Canaan, Damascus, Tebah, Cun, Edom, Valley of Salt, Aram Naharaim, Aram Maacah, Zobah, Medeba, Rabbah, Gezer, Beersheba, Dan, threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite, Gibeon, Kue, Tyre, Mount Moriah, Succoth, Zarethan, Wadi of Egypt, Hamath Zobah, Tadmor, Upper Beth Horon, Lower Beth Horon, Baalath, Lebanon, Ezion Geber, Elath, Edom, Ophir, Arabia, Palace of the Forest of Lebanon, Shechem, Bethlehem, Etam, Tekoa, Beth Zur, Soco, Adullam, Mareshah, Ziph, Adoraim, Lachish, Azekah, Zorah, Aijalon, Mount Zemaraim, Bethel, Jeshanah, Ephron, Mareshah, Valley of Zephathah, Gerar, Kidron Valley, Ramah, Aram, Ijon, Abel Maim, Geba, Mizpah, Samaria, Hazazon Tamar (En Gedi), Ammon, Mount Seir, Pass of Ziz, Desert of Jeruel, Desert of Tekoa, Valley of Beracah, Libnah, Valley of Salt, Beth Shemesh, Ephraim Gate, Corner Gate, Elath, Jabneh, Ashdod, Gur Baal, Upper Gate, hill of Ophel, Valley of Ben Hinnom, Negev, Gederoth, Gimzo, Gihon, Fish Gate, Carchemish, Megiddo, Babylon, Persia

Places mentioned:

Paravaim

Key Themes and Events:

1 Chronicles: Israel’s ancestors to the time of the monarchy are listed / the death of King Saul is remembered / David is anointed as king at Hebron / King David conquers Jerusalem / warriors and armed men join themselves with King David / King David motions that the Ark of the Covenant be brought to Jerusalem / Uzzah is killed for touching the Ark of the Covenant, as it was placed on a cart / King David defeats the Philistines / the Ark of the Covenant is brought by King David to Jerusalem in the midst of great praise and celebration to God / David sings a great psalm of praise before the Lord (16:8-36) / the Lord decrees that King David’s successor will be able to build a house for Him / King David is granted more military victories / King David defeats the Ammonites in battle / Joab captures Rabbah for King David, and David takes the gold crown of its king / Israel experiences victories over the Philistines / a plague is unleashed upon Israel for King David counting up the fighting men / King David purchases the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite / King David makes preparations for the building of God’s Temple, entrusting his son Solomon with the actual construction responsibilities / Solomon is made king of Israel / all of the people who will serve in and service the functions of the forthcoming Temple are listed / the divisions of David’s army are listed / overseers of Israel’s economy (primarily agricultural) are listed / King David presents the architectural plans for the new Temple to Solomon and his courtiers / freewill contributions are made by many of the people in Israel for the construction of the Temple / King David praises God for the offerings made for the construction of the Temple / Solomon is recognized as David’s successor a second time / David dies and Solomon begins his reign / 2 Chronicles: having become king, Solomon asks the Lord to give him wisdom / King Solomon asks King Hiram of Tyre to send him the necessary supplies to build the Temple / the structure of the Temple is built / the ornateness of the Temple furniture is detailed / the Ark of the Covenant is brought to the Temple, and the glory of the Lord fills the structure / King Solomon issues a great prayer of dedication for the completion of the Temple / following the dedication of the Temple, the Lord appears to King Solomon, adjuring him to be faithful to His commandments / King Solomon experiences military victories, fortifying his kingdom, and builds up his kingdom / the Queen of Sheba visits King Solomon, having heard that the reports of his wisdom were not exaggerated / King Solomon is attested to have had a great wealth in gold, and in particular some of the finest imported horses / King Solomon dies / Rehoboam succeeds Solomon as king, pledging to make the labor required by Solomon seem like nothing / only the people of Judah remain faithful to the House of David / God does not permit King Rehoboam to retake the disparate tribes in military conquest / King Rehoboam fortifies cities within Judah / Rehoboam dies and Abijah succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Abijah goes to war against Jeroboam of the Northern Kingdom, and tells them that by fighting against the Lord they will not succeed / King Abijah is successful in battle against the Northern Kingdom / Abijah dies and Asa succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Asa removes much idolatrous worship from the Southern Kingdom, and experiences a reign marked with relative peace / King Asa experiences victory against Zerah the Cushite / King Asa assembles the people to pledge themselves corporately to the Lord, including both Judahites and those from the Northern Kingdom who had settled in the Southern Kingdom / King Asa is remembered as one dedicated to the Lord / King Asa enters into an alliance with Ben-Hadad of Aram to attack the Northern Kingdom / King Asa is rebuked for not relying on the Lord for protection, with the remaining years of his reign marked by war / Asa dies and Jehoshaphat succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Jehoshaphat has various officials and Levites go throughout the Land of Judah, teaching people from the Torah / King Jehoshaphat is feared by his neighbors, having a significant standing army / King Jehoshaphat enters into an alliance with King Ahab to attack Ramoth Gilead / the Prophet Micaiah does not give the planned attack a positive word / King Ahab, although disguised, is killed in the battle with Aram / King Jehoshaphat appoints judges throughout the Southern Kingdom, urging them to follow the demands laid forth by God’s Torah / being threatened by the Moabites and Ammonites, King Jehoshaphat calls on the people of Judah to turn before the Lord / going out to battle the Moabites and Ammonites, the Lord laid an ambush, with the Ammonites and Moabites defeating those from Mount Seir, and then turning on one another / King Jehoshaphat is remembered as a relatively godly ruler who was faithful to the Lord, but who was rebuked in later years for entering into an alliance with Ahaziah of the Northern Kingdom / Jehosphahat dies and Jehoram succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Jehoram falls into the idolatrous ways of the Northern Kingdom, having married a daughter of Ahab / King Jehoram is rebuked in a letter sent to him by the Prophet Elijah, specifically for promoting idolatry in Judah and for murdering his extended family / King Jehoram dies of a painful bowel disease, not being remembered very fondly / Jehoram is succeeded by his youngest son, Ahaziah, as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Ahaziah is encouraged by his mother Athaliah to continue the sin of his father / King Ahaziah enters into an alliance with Joram of the Northern Kingdom / while visiting King Joram in Samaria, King Ahaziah is killed while Jehu executes God’s judgment upon the House of Ahab / seeing that her son was dead, Athaliah proceeds to have the royal family of Judah eliminated / Jehosheba escapes to the Temple with Joash, where he is hidden for six years / Athaliah rules as queen of the Southern Kingdom for six years / the priest Jehoiada initiates a coup against Queen Athaliah, having her executed / Joash becomes ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Joash inaugurates a program of restoring and refurbishing the Temple, having been tutored by Jehoiada / after Jehoiada’s death, King Joash and the people of Judah fall into idolatry / Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, plots against King Joash because of his promotion of sin / by King Joash’s orders Zechariah is stoned to death / Aram marches against King Joash and kills the leaders of the Southern Kingdom / King Joash is wounded in the invasion, and is later assassinated by his officials for having murdered Zechariah the priest / Amaziah succeeds Joash as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Amaziah begins his reign loyal to the Lord / King Amaziah is victorious against the Edomites, but brings their gods back with him as spoils / King Amaziah is rebuked for following the Edomite gods / King Jehoash of the Northern Kingdom attacks, capturing King Amaziah / King Jehoash plunders Jerusalem and the Temple of all its gold / King Amaziah flees to Lachish, and is assassinated by his own / Uzziah succeeds Amaziah as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Uzziah has a relatively prosperous reign, being a relatively godly king / King Uzziah is struck with leprosy when pridefully marching into the Temple to offer incense / King Uzziah lives with leprosy in a separate house / King Uzziah’s son Jotham rules as regent / Uzziah dies and Jotham succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Jotham is faithful to the Lord / King Jotham conquers the Ammonites / Jotham dies and Ahaz succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Ahaz falls into the idolatry of the Northern Kingdom, including sacrificing his own children in the fire / the Southern Kingdom under King Ahaz became the victim of the Arameans / the Northern Kingdom inflicts heavy damages on the Southern Kingdom, but does not take any permanent prisoners, returning them when reminded of their own sin / King Ahaz is attacked by the Edomites and Philistines, and pleads to the Assyrians for help, but to no avail / King Ahaz worships the gods of the Arameans, the people who defeated him, compounding his sin / Ahaz dies and Hezekiah succceds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Hezekiah rules as a godly king, seeing that the Temple is purified / a great time of rejoicing is inaugurated, as the Temple is rededicated / King Hezekiah celebrates the Passover, and invites people from the Northern Kingdom to actually come and join them / many people from the Northern Kingdom celebrate Passover with King Hezekiah and are restored to the Lord / a massive amount of contributions and tithes are made to the Levites, and King Hezekiah sees that they are properly distributed / Sennacherib of Assyria taunts the people of Judah by insulting their king, but most significantly the Lord / King Hezekiah and the Prophet Isaiah cry out to the Lord for deliverance against Assyria / the Lord kills the leaders of the Assyrian army / when Sennacherib returns home, he is assassinated by some of his sons / King Hezekiah amasses great wealth, and also great pride / envoys from Babylon visit King Hezekiah, who is tested by the Lord for fostering pride / Hezekiah dies and Manasseh succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / the reign of King Manasseh beings with him inaugurating a great season of idolatry in Judah, including child sacrifice / despite the Lord’s appeal to him to change, King Manasseh is not moved, and is taken captive to Babylon for a time / King Manasseh repents before the Lord while in captivity, and returns to Jerusalem, refurbishing the city / in spite of King Manasseh’s repentance, the people of Judah still continue in sin / Manasseh dies and Amon succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Amon continues the evil started by King Manasseh / King Amon is assassinated by his officials / Josiah becomes ruler of the Southern Kingdom at the age of eight / King Josiah sees that places of idolatry are removed from Judah / King Josiah sees that monies are collected to refurbish the Temple / the Book of the Law (Deuteronomy) is discovered in the Temple, and it is read to King Josiah / the Prophetess Huldah speaks of a great calamity that will not befall King Josiah’s country because his heart was responsive to the Lord / King Josiah has the Book of the Law read publicly to the people, who commit themselves to the Lord / King Josiah celebrates a massive Passover in Jerusalem / King Josiah is killed in battle while fighting Neco of Egypt / Jehoahaz replaces his father Josiah as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / Pharaoh Neco replaces King Jehoahaz with his brother, the renamed King Jehoiakim / Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon attacks King Jehoiakim, taking spoils from the Temple and deporting him to Babylon / Jehoiachin succeeds Jehoiakim as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Jehoiachin is summonded to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar / Zedekiah, Jehoiakin’s uncle, succeeds him as ruler of the Southern Kingdom / King Zedekiah is unfaithful to the Lord, in spite of the words delivered to him by Jeremiah / King Zedekiah continues in gross idolatry / extreme judgment is issued against Judah by the Babylonians, including the destruction of both Jerusalem and the Temple / survivors from the onslaught are deported to Babylon / seventy years of exile in Babylon are accomplished in order for the Promised Land to have a Sabbath rest / King Cyrus of Persia issues a decree allowing the Jews to return and rebuild their Temple in Jerusalem

Key Scriptures: 1 Chronicles 13:1-4; 15:12-15; 16:23-26, 34-36; 17:20-22; 21:8-12; 22:6-13, 17-19; 28:5-10, 20-21; 29:10-13; 2 Chronicles 1:7-12; 2:5-6; 5:13-6:2; 6:32-33, 41; 7:12-22; 9:5-8, 22-24; 10:19; 11:4; 15:1-7, 9, 12-15; 17:7-9; 19:5-10; 24:20-22; 30:6-9, 18-20; 34:23-28; 35:16-19; 36:15-16 / The Genealogies of Israel (1 Chronicles 1:1-9:44); The Reign of David (10:1-29:30) / The Reign of Solomon (2 Chronicles 1:1-9:31); The Kingdom of Judah (10:1-36:23)

Theological Summary: The Hebrew title of the Books of Chronicles is Divrei HaYamim, meaning “the Events/Annals of the Days/Years.” Similar terminology appears in Kings (1 Kings 14:19, 29; 15:7, 23, 31; 16:5, 14, 20, 27; 22:45). The Greek Septuagint actually titled this text Paraleipomenōn meaning “things omitted,” which some consider “not a very suitable name” (NBCR).[1] Its translators likely considered the text to be a supplement to Samuel-Kings, and they were the first to divide the text into two books. Jerome suggested that the Latin title Chronicon totius divinae historiae, “a chronicle of the whole of sacred history” (Harrison),[2] be used. It has since been adapted as “Chronicles.”

Chronicles is a very unique text when compared to its predecessor, Samuel-Kings. It does not focus on the Northern Kingdom of Israel, except in passing.[3] This work attempts to summarize events beginning with Adam all the way to Cyrus the Great of Persia. Chronicles jumps over and overlooks many people and events seen in Samuel-Kings, which is undeniably the author’s main source of information. Because of its irregular style of composition “The Chronicles have long been among the most neglected books in the Hebrew Bible” (Dillard and Longman).[4]

Protestant Christian tradition, following the order of the Septuagint and Vulgate, places 1&2 Chronicles among the Historical Books between 2 Kings and Ezra-Nehemiah. 1&2 Chronicles is actually the last book of the Tanach in the Jewish order, placed among the Writings.

The questions that Chronicles asks largely pertain to the Jewish people having returned from Babylonian exile.[5] Is God still interested in His people? Is He still faithful to His covenants? What do the Jewish people do under foreign (Persian) rule? Was God going to fulfill His promises? As a result of these, and other questions, the history presented in Chronicles presents itself with a more definite “slant” than Samuel-Kings, as it is designed to be uplifting and a message of hope to those who read it. Chronicles attempts to answer the question of who the returned Jewish exiles are as the people of God. The occasion for writing Chronicles is probably to call the people back to the Instruction of God (cf. Ezra 7:10) so that they may fulfill His Divine purpose.

Jewish tradition in the Talmud regards the priest Ezra as the author of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah (b.Bava Batra 15a).[6] This cannot be established with certainty as the text does not state an author directly.[7] It may be that Ezra was the principal composer of an early draft of the text. Harrison indicates, “Ezra [presumably] carried the narratives down to his own time.”[8] If Ezra were the principal composer, then it is no surprise that the various priestly genealogies seen in 1 Chronicles chs. 1-9 carry their way to him. Ezra-Nehemiah does pick up where Chronicles leaves off, and many conservatives believe that these two texts once made up a single work.[9]

There is a trend among conservative scholars today to not consider Chronicles a unified work with Ezra-Nehemiah,[10] as there have likely been redactions made to the text. In the original composition, the Chronicler indicates that he considered many sources, notably Samuel-Kings. Additional sources used by the Chronicler probably included the Torah, Judges, Ruth, Psalms, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, and Zechariah (although probably not in their final, current form). References are made throughout Chronicles to other sources, including: the Book of the Kings of Israel (1 Chronicles 9:1; 2 Chronicles 20:34), the Book of the Annals of King David (1 Chronicles 27:24), the Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel/Israel and Judah (2 Chronicles 16:11; 25:26; 27:7; 28:26; 32:32; 35:27; 36:8), and the Annotations on the Book of the Kings (2 Chronicles 24:27). These sources are all admittedly vague and no longer extant.[11] A number of non-extant prophetic writings are also mentioned throughout Chronicles.

Conservative theologians often date the composition of Chronicles in the late Fifth Century B.C.E., although a date in the late Fourth Century B.C.E. is probable if one accepts a unified composition with Ezra-Nehemiah.[12] It is asserted that the text had to have been written during the Persian period as there are no references to either Hellenism or the rise of Alexander the Great.[13]

Liberal theologians largely deny any kind of unified composition for Chronicles. Earlier liberals considered Chronicles to be a kind of sequel to P or the so-called Priestly Code[14] seen in their documentary hypothesis of the Pentateuch (see Genesis entry for a summarization of the JEDP documentary hypothesis). It has been advocated that Chronicles reflects a distinctly religious history from a Levite,[15] placing the Levites in a very positive light and “glorifying Judaism and the Jews through the centuries beyond all possibilities…[rewriting] the history from David to Cyrus: he freely omitted from his sources, added to them, modified them, being blissfully unaware of anachronisms and impossibilities” (IDB).[16]

Liberals have commonly argued that Chronicles was composed over a broad period of time from the Fourth-Third Centuries B.C.E., and was intended to be the “first apology [meaning, defense] for Judaism” (IDB).[17] Some liberals even place the composition of Chronicles as late as the Second Century B.C.E.[18] Generally, liberals agree that Chronicles itself is pieced together from sources, such as the sections dealing with David and Solomon, as well as other individual kings, and over time were strung together and unified.

Liberal criticism against Chronicles has been immense. Most consider it to have some severe theological inconsistencies.[19] Criticism against Chronicles is nothing new, going back to the time of the writing of the Talmud, with many considering Chronicles to be “didactic or homiletical in nature” (Harrison).[20] Most liberal problems with Chronicles concern its historicity and reliability.[21]

Conservative theologians have largely responded to liberal criticism with the need to consider Chronicles as first theological, then historical. Harrison indicates, “it should be noted at once that the writings of the Chronicler did not lay claim to be considered as history in the contemporary occidental sense of that term.”[22] Our interpretation of Chronicles is directly connected to Samuel-Kings, and one must consider their unique vantage points: one before or during the Babylonian exile, and one after it.

The way the Chronicler records Israel’s history is not inconsistent from what we see among the documents at Qumran.[23] A modern reader cannot subject Chronicles to his or her expectations of historical accuracy, recognizing that among its contemporary ancient histories Chronicles demonstrates a strong level of affinity. “What the reader of the Chronicler needs is sensitivity to the method of writing history in biblical times together with some knowledge of the milieu in which the work came into existence, the need which it was intended to fill, and the audience to which it was addressed” (ISBE).[24] Current trends in liberal studies of Chronicles indicate an “emphasis…more on the Chronicler’s use of additional material, rather than upon that material’s historical value” (ABD).[25]

Both Aramaic and Hebrew are present in the Books of Chronicles. Its Septuagint Greek translation is important, but is often considered to be “paraphrastic…[and] bears witness to an older and often shorter form of the text” (ABD).[26] Others consider its LXX version to be extremely literal.[27] The Hebrew MT witness of Chronicles is in a “fair state of preservation” (Payne, EXP),[28] but due to its young date among Tanach books infrequent copying may have actually caused more textual errors[29] that could have been redacted—particularly with its numbering system. “[S]maller numbers [are] supplied by the LXX [and] seem to indicate that the larger ones of the Hebrew have not been transmitted in their original form, or that the compiler was scaling them down in the interests of factual reality” (Harrison).[30]

The author of Chronicles affirms a continuity to the past, with the Temple in Jerusalem being rebuilt by the approval of the Persian king (2 Chronicles 36:22-23), mirrored by his earlier references regarding Kings David and Solomon. The author focuses on the successes and failures of Israel’s earlier kings, and emphasizes how being faithful to the Torah and Prophets is more important than whether the Jews of his generation have a king. The author is often thought to consider his own Jewish people to represent “all Israel,” as the Southern Kingdom had absorbed a sufficient number of Northern Kingdom Israelites (2 Chronicles 34:9; 35:17-18). This can present some challenges to those who overemphasize the futuristic expectation of prophecies detailing the restoration of Judah and Israel, who fail to recognize the Jews as being “Israel.” Yet, exclusively relying on such references in Chronicles, though, to somehow claim that the Southern and Northern Kingdoms corporately, were restored in ancient times subsequent to the Babylonian exile—and using it as a reason to ignore prophecies that speak to the contrary—would be most ill-advised (cf. 2 Chronicles 10:19).

The author of Chronicles wants to sustain a hope for a Deliverer to come, i.e., a Messianic son of David (2 Samuel 7). He indicates that God has been faithful to His people going back through the recorded generations (1 Chronicles 1:1). God has chosen Israel for special purposes, but Israel’s relationship to God is contingent upon its obedience. As a result, the Chronicler is also concerned with God’s retribution upon His people.[31]

The dominant parts of Chronicles are dedicated to David (1 Chronicles 11-29) and Solomon (2 Chronicles 1-9), with negative information regarding these two kings largely omitted.[32] This has led to intense speculation that this is intentional, with the Chronicler portraying the “Messianic” qualities of these two leaders.[33] It may be that the author intends to use the lives of David and Solomon to address some serious post-exilic questions.[34]

Issues in interpretation largely regard the relationship of Samuel-Kings to Chronicles, and how to synthesize Samuel-Kings’ accounts of Ancient Israel’s history with how they are often “explained” in Chronicles.[35] “It is clear that Chronicles read by itself would give an unbalanced view of Israelite history” (NBCR),[36] as the author has a definite theological agenda.[37] Genealogies in Chronicles (1 Chronicles 1:1-9:44) are segmented in places compared to their listings in other Tanach Scriptures,[38] with the process of telescoping purposefully omitting names to make an important theological or ideological point (cf. Matthew 1; Luke 3).

Furthermore, there are serious issues in Chronicles regarding numbers and census accounts that may be a result of textual corruption. A notable one appears in 2 Chronicles 14:9 which refers to a million man army accompanied by only 300 chariots.[39] The Greek Septuagint is sometimes helpful in providing a more realistic number, but not always. Difficulties such as the spelling of proper names is a challenge to modern readers, but not to the Ancient Near Eastern worldview.

The Apostolic Scriptures do occasionally quote from Chronicles,[40] and undoubtedly formed an important part of the worldview of Yeshua and His Disciples.

Messianic handling of Chronicles is difficult to determine at the present time, concurrent also with its handling of Samuel-Kings, largely due to the overemphasis on the Torah in our Bible studies. Too frequently, when interpreters do examine Chronicles, the witness of Samuel-Kings is not considered, or vice versa. Even more issues may have to be considered with the possible unity between Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah that is often proposed. Parallels are most certainly seen between characters in the Torah (i.e., Moses and Joshua) and how they are compared to some figures in Monarchist Israel (i.e., David and Solomon). The Chronicler is undeniably influenced by his position as a Southern Kingdom Jew, and is one who is ultimately interested in giving the returned exiles hope for the future in the covenant faithfulness of their God.

Bibliography

Ackroyd, P.R. “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDBSup, pp 156-158.

Coggins, Richard J. “1 and 2 Chronicles,” in ECB, pp 282-312.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Chronicles,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 169-177.

Ellison, H.L. “1 and 2 Chronicles,” in NBCR, pp 369-394.

Harrison, R.K. “The Books of Chronicles,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1152-1171.

Hasel, G.F. “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:666-673.

Klein, Ralph W. “Chronicles, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 1:992-1002.

Knoppers, Gary N. “Chronicles, Books of,” in EDB, pp 242-244.

Payne, J. Barton. “Chronicles, 1 and 2,” in NIDB, pp 210-211.

_____________. “1, 2 Chronicles,” in EXP, 4:303-562.

Pfeiffer, R.H. “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDB, 1:572-580.

Rothstein, David. “First Chronicles,” in The Jewish Study Bible, pp 1712-1764.

______________. “Second Chronicles,” in Ibid., pp 1765-1825.

Throntveit, Mark A. “1 Chronicles,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 571-608.

_________________. “2 Chronicles,” in Ibid., pp 609-651.

ENDNOTES FOR Book of Chronicles

[1] H.L. Ellison, “1 and 2 Chronicles,” in NBCR, 369.

[2] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1152; J. Barton Payne, “1, 2 Chronicles,” in EXP, 4:304.

[3] Gary N. Knoppers, “Chronicles, Books of,” in EDB, 243; Richard J. Coggins, “1 and 2 Chronicles,” in ECB, 282.

[4] Dillard and Longman, 169.

[5] Ibid., 173.

[6] “Ezra wrote the book that is called by his name and the genealogies of the book of Chronicles up to his own time. That accords with the position of Rab, for said R. Judah said Rab, ‘Ezra left Babylonia to go up to the land of Israel only after he had written his own genealogy.’ Who finished the book of Chronicles? Nehemiah b. Hachaliah” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).

[7] J. Barton Payne, “Chronicles, 1 and 2,” in NIDB, 210; Coggins, in ECB, 282; Dillard and Longman, 170.

[8] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1153.

[9] Ellison, in NBCR, 369; G.F. Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:667; Payne, in EXP, 4:305-307; Dillard and Longman, 171.

[10] Dillard and Longman, 172.

[11] R.H. Pfeiffer, “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDB, 1:578-579; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1159-1161; Payne, “Chronicles, 1 and 2,” in NIDB, 210; ISBE, 1:668; Payne, in EXP, 4:309-311; Ralph W. Klein, “Chronicles, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 1:996-997; Gary N. Knoppers, “Chronicles, Books of,” in EDB, 242.

[12] Ellison, in NBCR, 369; Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:670.

[13] Coggins, in ECB, 282.

[14] Pfeiffer, “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDB, 1:573-574.

[15] Pfeiffer, “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDB, 1:575; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1161-1162; P.R. Ackroyd, “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDBSup, 157; Coggins, in ECB, 283.

[16] Pfeiffer, “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDB, 2:577.

[17] Pfeiffer, “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDB, 1:577; cf. Klein, “Chronicles, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 1:994-995.

[18] Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:670.

[19] David Rothstein, “First Chronicles,” in Jewish Study Bible, 1712.

[20] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1163.

[21] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 1157-1158; Rothstein, in Jewish Study Bible, 1712.

[22] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1158.

[23] Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:667; Coggins, in ECB, 284.

[24] Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:669.

[25] Klein, “Chronicles, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 1:997.

[26] Ibid., 1:995.

[27] Payne, in EXP, 4:311.

[28] Ibid.

[29] Ibid.

[30] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1170.

[31] Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:671-672.

[32] Klein, “Chronicles, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 1:999-1000; Dillard and Longman, pp 174-175.

[33] Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:672; Rothstein, in Jewish Study Bible, pp 1715-1716.

[34] Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:669-670; Knoppers, “Chronicles, Books of,” in EDB, 243.

[35] Payne, in EXP, 4:315.

[36] Ellison, in NBCR, 370.

[37] Payne, “Chronicles, 1 and 2,” in NIDB, 211.

[38] Dillard and Longman, pp 173-174.

[39] Pfeiffer, “Chronicles, I and II,” in IDB, 1:574; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1165; Hasel, “Chronicles, Books of,” in ISBE, 1:669; Payne, “Chronicles, 1 and 2,” in NIDB, 211; Payne, in EXP, 4:562.

[40] Payne, in EXP, 4:312.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION ON CHRONICLES:

1. What strikes you as being different in the portrayals of King David in 1 Kings versus 1 Chronicles?

2. What are the important things that King David charges his son Solomon to do after he dies?

3. Do you think there is anything significant about King Solomon’s prayer of dedication for the Temple (2 Chronicles 6:12-42)?

4. Does anything strike you as being important from the testimony of the Queen of Sheba during her visit to King Solomon’s court?

5. How are the Books of 1&2 Chronicles a definite reflection on the Southern Kingdom of Judah?

6. Of the kings of Judah depicted in 2 Chronicles, which one(s) intrigues you the most? Was he a good king or a bad king?

7. How important was the reign of King Uzziah? (hint: see Isaiah 6)

8. Summarize the steady decline of the Southern Kingdom.

9. How important were the reforms of King Josiah? Why do you think that after his death the Southern Kingdom of Judah collapsed?

10. What do you think makes 1&2 Chronicles unique when compared to Samuel-Kings?

11. What lessons might today’s Messianic community learn by listening to the message of 1&2 Chronicles?

REFLECTION ON CHRONICLES’ PLACEMENT IN THE CANON

Write two short paragraphs about what struck you about reading the Books of Chronicles:

About the Author

John Kimball McKee is the founder and principal writer for TNN Online, an Internet website that specializes in a wide variety of Biblical topics. He has grown up in a family that has been in constant pursuit of God’s truth, and has been exposed to things of the Lord since infancy. Since 1995 he has come to the realization of the post-tribulational return of the Messiah for His own and the importance of our Hebraic Roots. He is a graduate of the University of Oklahoma (Class of 2003) with a B.A. in political science, and holds an M.A. in Biblical Studies from Asbury Theological Seminary (Class of 2009). He is a 2009 recipient of the Zondervan Biblical Languages Award for Greek. John holds memberships in the Evangelical Theological Society, the Evangelical Philosophical Society, and Christians for Biblical Equality.

John is an apologist for the Creator God and in helping people understand their faith heritage in Ancient Israel and Second Temple Judaism. Much of his ministry in the past has been campus based to the multitudes in evangelical Christianity who are associated with a wide variety of Protestant denominations and persuasions. John has introduced college students to things that are Messianic such as the original Hebrew name of our Savior, Yeshua HaMashiach (Jesus the Messiah), a name that he has known since 1983.

John’s testimony before his Christian friends at college challenged much of their previous thinking about the whole of the Holy Scriptures and the need to follow the commandments of the Most High. His college peers asked him many questions: Why do you not believe in the pre-trib rapture? What do you think of the Left Behind books? Why do you observe the seventh-day Sabbath? Why do you eat kosher? Why do you wear a beard? Why do you celebrate the feasts of Israel? Why will you use a tallit and wrap tefillin/phylacteries during private prayer? Why do you consult original Hebrew and Greek language texts of the Bible? Why don’t you come to church with us on Sunday? This led John into Messianic apologetics and the defense of our faith. John strives to be one who is committed to a life of holiness and methodical Bible study, as a person who has a testimony of being born again and who sincerely desires to obey the Lord.

As the editor of TNN Online, John’s ministry has capitalized on the Internet’s ability to reach people all over this planet. The Theology News Network speaks with challenging, provocative, and apologetic articles to a wide Messianic audience, and those Christians who are interested in Messianic beliefs. In the past decade, TNN Online has emerged as a moderate and Centrist voice in a Messianic movement that is trying to determine its purpose, relevance, and mission to modern society. Given his generational family background in evangelical Christian ministry, as well as in academics and the military, John carries a strong burden to assist in the development and maturation of our emerging Messianic theology and spirituality, so that we might truly know the mission of God. John has had the profound opportunity since 1997 to engage many in dialogue, so that they will consider the questions he postulates, as his only agenda is to be as Scripturally sound as possible. John believes in demonstrating a great deal of honor and respect to both his evangelical Christian, Wesleyan and Reformed heritage, as well as to the Jewish Synagogue, and together allowing the strengths of both Judaism and Christianity to be employed for the Lord’s plan for the Messianic movement in the long term future.

J.K. McKee is the son of the late K. Kimball McKee (1951-1992) and Margaret Jeffries McKee Huey (1953-), and stepson of William Mark Huey (1951-), who married his mother in 1994, and is the executive director of Outreach Israel Ministries.

John has a very strong appreciation for those who have preceded him. His father, Kimball McKee, was a licensed lay minister in the Kentucky Conference of the United Methodist Church, and was a very strong evangelical Christian, most appreciative of the Hebraic and Jewish Roots of the faith. Among his many ministry pursuits, Kim brought the Passover sedar to Christ United Methodist Church in Florence, KY, was a Sunday school teacher, and was extremely active in the Walk to Emmaus, leading the first men’s walk in Madras, India in 1991. John is the grandson of the late William W. Jeffries (1914-1989), who served as a professor at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, MD from 1942-1989, notably as the museum director and founder of what is now the William W. Jeffries Memorial Archives in the Nimitz Library. John is the great-grandson of Bishop Marvin A. Franklin (1894-1972), who served as a minister and bishop of the Methodist Church, throughout his ministry serving churches in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Bishop Franklin was President of the Council of Bishops from 1959-1960. John is also the third cousin of the late Charles L. Allen (1913-2005), formerly the senior pastor of Grace Methodist Church of Atlanta, GA and First Methodist Church of Houston, TX, and author of numerous books, notably including God’s Psychiatry. Among all of his forbearers, though, he considers his personality to be most derived from his late paternal grandfather, George Kenneth McKee (1903-1978), and his maternal grandmother, Mary Ruth Franklin Jeffries (1919-).

J.K. McKee is a native of the Northern Kentucky/Greater Cincinnati, OH area. He has also lived in Dallas, TX, Norman, OK, Kissimmee-St. Cloud, FL, and Roatán, Honduras, Central America. He presently resides in Dallas, TX, and is a member in good standing at Eitz Chaim Messianic Jewish Synagogue.

Bibliography

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_____________., trans. Complete Jewish Bible (Clarksville, MD: Jewish New Testament Publications, 1998).

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Books

Boyd, Gregory A., and Paul R. Eddy. Across the Spectrum: Understanding Issues in Evangelical Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002).

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__________. How We Got Our Bible (Tacoma, WA: TorahResource, 2004).

Juster, Daniel C. Jewish Roots (Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image, 1995).

Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994).

Kaiser, Walter C. Toward Old Testament Ethics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983).

_______________. The Messiah in the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995).

_______________. The Promise-Plan of God: A Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008).

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__________. Ephesians for the Practical Messianic, second edition (Kissimmee, FL: TNN Press, 2008).

__________. Colossians and Philemon for the Practical Messianic (Kissimmee, FL: TNN Press, 2010).

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Christian Reference Sources

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____________________, ed. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000).

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Hawthorne, Gerald F., Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid, eds. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993).

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Martin, Ralph P., and Peter H. Davids, eds. Dictionary of the Later New Testament & its Developments (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1997).

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McLay, R. Timothy. The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003).

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Cited Commentaries

Dunn, James D.G., and John W. Rogerson, eds. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003).

Gaebelein, Frank E., ed. et. al. Expositor’s Bible Commentary, 12 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976-1992).

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Keil, C., and F. Delitzsch, eds. Commentary on the Old Testament, 10 vols.

Laymon, Charles M., ed. The Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary on the Bible (Nashville: Abingdon, 1971).

Sarna, Nahum M. JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989).

_______________. JPS Torah Commentary: Exodus (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1991).

Walton, John H., and Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2000).

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Greek Language Resources

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Hebrew Language Resources

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Brown, Francis, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979).

Davidson, Benjamin. The Analytical Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970).

Dotan, Aron, ed. Biblia Hebraica Leningradensia (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2001).

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Jastrow, Marcus. Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Bavli, Talmud Yerushalmi, and Midrashic Literature (New York: Judaica Treasury, 2004).

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Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim v'haBrit haChadashah  (Jerusalem: Bible Society in Israel, 1991).

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Historical Sources & Ancient Literature

Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).

Davies, W.W. The Codes of Hammurabi and Moses (Berkeley, CA: Apocryphile Press, 2006).

Josephus, Flavius: The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, trans. William Whiston (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987).

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Parker, Simon B., ed. Ugaritic Narrative Poetry (Atlanta: Socieity of Biblical Literature, 1997).

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Jewish Reference Sources

Cohen, Abraham. Everyman’s Talmud: The Major Teachings of the Rabbinic Sages (New York: Schoken, 1995).

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Hertz, J.H., ed. Pentateuch & Haftorahs (London: Soncino, 1960).

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______________, and William Scott Green, eds. Dictionary of Judaism in the Biblical Period (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2002).

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Scherman, Nosson, ed., et. al. The ArtScroll Chumash, Stone Edition, 5th ed. (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000).

Miscellaneous Texts & Lexicons

Bauer, David R. An Annotated Guide to Biblical Resources for Ministry (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003).

Charlesworth, James H., ed. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol 1 (New York: Doubleday, 1983).

________________________. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1985).

Sparks, H.F.D., ed. The Apocryphal Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).

Vermes, Geza, trans. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (London: Penguin Books, 1997).

Young, Robert. Young’s Analytical Concordance to the Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977).

Software Programs

BibleWorks 7.0. MS Windows XP. Norfolk: BibleWorks, LLC, 2006. CD-ROM.

BibleWorks 8.0. MS Windows Vista/7 Release. Norfolk: BibleWorks, LLC, 2009-2010. DVD-ROM.

E-Sword 7.6.1. MS Windows 9x. Franklin, TN: Equipping Ministries Foundation, 2005.

Judaic Classics Library II. MS Windows 3.1. Brooklyn: Institute for Computers in Jewish Life, 1996. CD-ROM.

Libronix Digital Library System 1.0d: Church History Collection. MS Windows XP. Garland, TX: Galaxie Software. 2002.

QuickVerse 6.0. MS Windows 95. Hiawatha, IA: Parsons Technology, 1999. CD-ROM.

The Essential Christian Library. MS-Windows 95. Coeur d’Alene, ID: Packard Technologies, 1998. CD-ROM.

Publications Available from TNN Press

TNN Press is the official publishing arm of TNN Online, and its parent organization, Outreach Israel Ministries. TNN Press is dedicated to producing high quality, doctrinally sound, challenging, and fair-minded Messianic materials and resources for the Twenty-First Century. TNN Press offers a wide array of new and exciting books and resources for the truth seeker.

TNN Press titles are available for purchase at www.outreachisrael.net or at Amazon.com

Hebraic Roots: An Introductory Study

is TNN Press’ main, best-selling publication, that offers a good overview of the Messianic movement and Messianic lifestyle that can be used for individual or group study in twelve easy lessons

Introduction to Things Messianic

is an excellent companion to Hebraic Roots, which goes into substantially more detail into the emerging theology of the Messianic movement, specific areas of Torah observance, and aspects of faith such as salvation and eschatology

The Messianic Helper series, edited by Margaret McKee Huey, includes a series of books with instructional information on how to have a Messianic home, including holiday celebration guides.

Messianic Winter Holiday Helper

is a guide to help you during the Winter holiday season, addressing the significance of Chanukah, the period of the Maccabees, and the non-Biblical holiday of Christmas

Messianic Spring Holiday Helper

is a guide to assist you during the Spring holiday season, analyzing the importance of Purim, Passover and Unleavened Bread, Shavuot, and the non-Biblical holiday of Easter

Messianic Fall Holiday Helper

is a guide for the Fall holiday season of Yom Teruah/Rosh HaShanah, Yom Kippur, and Sukkot, along with reflective teachings and exhortations

Messianic Sabbath Helper (coming soon in paperback)

is a guide that will help you make the seventh-day Sabbath a delight, discussing both how to keep the Sabbath and the history of the transition to Sunday that occurred in early Christianity

Messianic Kosher Helper

is a guide discussing various aspects of the kosher dietary laws, clean and unclean meats, common Jewish traditions associated with kashrut, common claims made that these are no longer important for Believers, and an extensive analysis of Biblical passages from the Tanach (OT) and Apostolic Scriptures (NT) about the Torah’s dietary laws and their relevance

Messianic Torah Helper

is a guide that weighs the different perspectives of the Pentateuch present in Jewish and Christian theology, considers the role of the Law for God’s people, and how today’s Messianics can fairly approach issues of halachah and tradition in their Torah observance

Outreach Israel Ministries director Mark Huey has written Torah commentaries and reflections that are thought provoking and very enlightening for Messianic Believers today.

TorahScope Volume I

is a compilation workbook of insightful commentaries on the weekly Torah and Haftarah portions

TorahScope Volume II

is a second compilation workbook of expanded commentaries on the weekly Torah and Haftarah portions

TorahScope Volume III

is a third compilation workbook of expanded commentaries on the weekly Torah and Haftarah portions, specifically concentrating on the theme of faith

TorahScope Haftarah Exhortations

is a compilation workbook of insightful commentaries on the specific, weekly Haftarah portions, designed to be used to compliment the weekly Torah reading

TorahScope Apostolic Scripture Reflections

is a compilation workbook of insightful reflections on suggested readings from the Apostolic Scriptures or New Testament, designed to be used to compliment the weekly Torah and Haftarah readings

Counting the Omer: A Daily Devotional Toward Shavuot

is a daily devotional with fifty succinct reflections from Psalms, guiding you during the season between the festivals of Passover and Pentecost

Sayings of the Fathers: A Messianic Perspective on Pirkei Avot

is a daily devotional for two years of reflection on the Mishnah tractate Pirkei Avot, introducing you to some of the key views present in the Apostolic period as witnessed by the Jewish Sages (intended to be read during the counting of the omer)

TNN Online editor and Messianic apologist J.K. McKee has written on Messianic theology and practice, including studies on Torah observance, the end-times, and commentaries that are helpful to those who have difficult questions to answer.

The New Testament Validates Torah

Does the New Testament Really Do Away With the Law?

is a resource examining a wide variety of Biblical passages, discussing whether or not the Torah of Moses is really abolished in the New Testament

Torah In the Balance, Volume I

The Validity of the Torah and Its Practical Life Applications

examines the principal areas of a Torah observant walk of faith for the newcomer, including one’s spiritual motives

Confronting Critical Issues

An Analysis of Subjects that Affects the Growth and Stability

of the Emerging Messianic Movement

compiles a variety of articles and analyses that directly confront negative teachings and trends that have been witnessed in the broad Messianic community in the past decade

TNN Press has produced a variety of Messianic commentaries on various books of the Bible under the “for the Practical Messianic” byline. These can be used in an individual, small group, or congregational study.

general commentaries:

A Survey of the Tanach for the Practical Messianic

A Survey of the Apostolic Scriptures for the Practical Messianic

specific book commentaries:

Acts 15 for the Practical Messianic

Galatians for the Practical Messianic

Ephesians for the Practical Messianic

Philippians for the Practical Messianic

Colossians and Philemon for the Practical Messianic

The Pastoral Epistles for the Practical Messianic

1&2 Thessalonians for the Practical Messianic

James for the Practical Messianic

Hebrews for the Practical Messianic

TNN Press has produced a selection of confronting issues mini-books, specifically designed to address controversial theological topics facing a widely divided Messianic movement

One Law for All

From the Mosaic Texts to the Work of the Holy Spirit

by J.K. McKee

addresses the different passages that are significant to the whole discussion of “one Law” or “one Torah” to be followed by the people of God, and the widespread polarization of the Torah being a Divine Invitation or Covenant Obligation for non-Jewish Believers

Are Non-Jewish Believers Really a Part of Israel?

by J.K. McKee

addresses the basic choices of ecclesiology for today’s Messianic Believers: either God (1) has two groups of elect, or sub-peoples: Israel and “the Church”; or God (2) recognizes us all as a part of an enlarged Kingdom realm of Israel. How are we to approach non-Jewish Believers in the Messianic movement, and things like the Commonwealth of Israel (Ephesians 2:11-13), the Israel of God (Galatians 6:16), or being grafted-in (Romans 11:16-18)?

Confronting Yeshua’s Divinity and Messiahship

by J.K. McKee

examines some of the top reasons given by Messianic people who deny Yeshua as being God, why the Godhead can indeed be plural, and some of the top reasons given by Jewish anti-missionaries against Yeshua being the Messiah of Israel

To Be Absent From the Body

by J.K. McKee

confronts the debate over the intermediate state, what occurs to a person between death and the resurrection, and how the Scriptures do indeed affirm that people will be in a disembodied condition in another dimension for a limited time

Why Hell Must Be Eternal

by J.K. McKee

addresses the rather uncomfortable and unpopular topic of eternal punishment, considering some of the common proof texts given in support of annihilationism, and also weighs in the perspective of the metaphorical view of eternal punishment present in theological studies since the Protestant Reformation

One of the goals of TNN Press is to always be in the mode of producing more cutting edge materials, addressing head on some of the theological and spiritual issues facing our emerging Messianic movement. In addition to our current array of available and soon-to-be available publications, the following are a selection of Future Projects, in various stages of planning and pre-production, most of which involve research at the present time (2013). Look for their release sometime over the next two to five years and beyond.

Torah In the Balance, Volume II

The Set-Apart Life in Action—The Outward Expressions of Faith

by J.K. McKee

will examine many of the finer areas of Torah observance, which has a diversity of interpretations and applications as witnessed in both mainstream Judaism and the wide Messianic community

Salvation on the Line/in View

by J.K. McKee

is a planned/anticipated multi-volume series which will directly tackle the subject of apostasy in today’s Messianic movement, first considering the Divinity of Yeshua, the doctrine of salvation, and later the Messiahship of Yeshua, the reliability of the Scriptures, and human origins

Table of Contents

Copyright

An Important Word From the Publisher:

Abbreviation Chart and Special Terms

INTRODUCTION

TORAH

BOOK OF GENESIS

BOOK OF EXODUS

BOOK OF LEVITICUS

BOOK OF NUMBERS

BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY

NEVI'IM

BOOK OF JOSHUA

BOOK OF JUDGES

BOOKS OF SAMUEL

BOOKS OF KINGS

BOOK OF ISAIAH

BOOK OF JEREMIAH

BOOK OF EZEKIEL

BOOK OF HOSEA

BOOK OF JOEL

BOOK OF AMOS

BOOK OF OBADIAH

BOOK OF JONAH

BOOK OF MICAH

BOOK OF NAHUM

BOOK OF HABAKKUK

BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH

BOOK OF HAGGAI

BOOK OF ZECHARIAH

BOOK OF MALACHI

KETUVIM

BOOK OF PSALMS

BOOK OF PROVERBS

BOOK OF JOB

SONG OF SONGS

BOOK OF RUTH

BOOK OF LAMENTATIONS

BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES

BOOK OF ESTHER

BOOK OF DANIEL

BOOK OF EZRA-NEHEMIAH

BOOKS OF CHRONICLES

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