title

:

Ezekiel Believers Church Bible Commentary

author

:

Lind, Millard.

publisher

:

Herald Press

isbn10 | asin

:

0836190165

print isbn13

:

9780836190168

ebook isbn13

:

9780585246420

language

:

English

subject

Bible.--O.T.--Ezekiel--Commentaries.

publication date

:

1996

lcc

:

BS1545.3.L56 1996eb

ddc

:

224/.407

subject

:

Bible.--O.T.--Ezekiel--Commentaries.

Page 1

Elmer A. Martens and Willard M. Swartley, Editors

Page 2

EDITORIAL COUNCIL

David Baker

Brethren Church

Estella B. Horning

Church of the Brethren

Robert B. Ives

Brethren in Christ Church

Lydia Harder

General Conference Mennonite Church

Gordon H. Matties

Mennonite Brethren Church

Paul M. Zehr

Mennonite Church

OLD TESTAMENT EDITOR

Elmer A. Martens

Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary

Fresno, California

NEW TESTAMENT EDITORS

Willard M. Swartley

Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary

Elkhart, Indiana

Howard H. Charles (for Matthew)

Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary

Elkhart, Indiana

Page 3

Ezekiel

Millard C. Lind

Page 4

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lind, Millard, 1918-

Ezekiel / Millard C. Lind.

p. cm.    (Believers church Bible commentary)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8361-9016-5 (alk. paper)

1. Bible. O.T. EzekielCommentaries. I. Bible, O.T. Ezekiel. English.

New Revised Standard. 1996. II. Title. III. Series.

BS1545.3.L56 1996

224'.407dc20                                                  95-52499

CIP

The paper used in this publication is recycled and meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information SciencesPermanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Quotations from the Bible and the Apocrypha are used by permission, all rights reserved, and unless otherwise noted are from the New Revised Standard Version Bible, copyright 1989, by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Other versions used briefly in making comparisons are listed with Abbreviations, p. 376.

BELIEVERS CHURCH BIBLE COMMENTARY: EZEKIEL

Copyright © 1996 by Herald Press, Scottdale, Pa. 15683

Published simultaneously in Canada by Herald Press,

Waterloo, Ont. N2L 6H7. All rights reserved

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 95-52499

International Standard Book Number: 0-8361-9016-5

Printed in the United States of America

Cover by Merrill R. Miller

05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Page 5

To my family

and to the memory of

Marlin E. Miller

Page 6

BELIEVERS CHURCH BIBLE COMMENTARY

Old Testament

Genesis, by Eugene F. Roop

Jeremiah, by Elmer A. Martens

Ezekiel, by Millard C. Lind

Daniel, by Paul M. Lederach

New Testament

Matthew, by Richard B. Gardner

Acts, by Chalmer E. Faw

Colossians, Philemon, by Ernest D. Martin

1 and 2 Thessalonians, by Jacob W. Elias

Page 7

CONTENTS

Series Foreword

11

Author's Preface

13

Cross-References

16

An International Prophet Redefines History

17

Part 1: Vision of God in a Cosmic War Chariot: Ezekiel's Commission, 1:13:27

Ezekiel Commissioned for Public Ministry, 1:13:15

25

Ezekiel the Sentinel, 3:16-27

41

Part 2: The Lord's Victory over Arrogant Jerusalem and Judah, 4:124:27

Ezekiel's Street Theater: Pantomime and Sermon, 4:15:17

51

You Mountains of Israel, Hear the Word of the Lord, 6:1-14

62

The Grand Finale: Day of the Lord, 7:1-27

68

Temple Vision: The Exit of God, 8:111:25

75

Exile Bundle: Pantomiming Against Official Policy, 12:1-20

91

"What Is This Proverb?" Debate with the People, 12:21-28

100

"Daubers of Whitewash": Against the Prophets, 13:1-23

105

The Silent God, 14:1-23

115

Jerusalem, a Vine in a Forest, 15:1-8

123

Story as Indictment, 16:1-63

129

Two Sprigs, a Vine, and Three Gardeners, 17:1-24

139

Turn and Live! 18:1-32

148

A Dirge for Jerusalem's Government, 19:1-14

157

"I Will Be King over You!" 20:1-44

165

Page 8

The Sword of the Lord, 20:4521:32 (Hebrew, 21:1-37)

176

The Bloody City, 22:1-31

186

Cycle of Diplomacy: From Egypt to Egypt, 23:1-49

193

The Pot Boils and a Woman Dies, 24:1-27

204

Part 3: The Lord's Victory over Arrogant Nations and Empires, 25:132:32

Oracles to the Nations: No Private Vengeance! 25:1-17

215

First Revelation Against Tyre: A Scraped Rock, 26:1-21

222

Second Revelation Against Tyre: Ship Lost at Sea, 27:1-36

228

Third and Fourth Revelations Against Tyre, 28:1-26

234

Seven Revelations Against Egypt: Paper Tiger, 29:132:32

242

The Great Divide: The Lord's Victory: Report of the City's Fall, 33:1-33

Not Fate but Choice: Responsibility, 33:1-33

263

Part 4: The Lord's Victory: A New Community in a Renewed Land, 34:137:28

The Good Shepherd, 34:1-31

273

Mountain Versus Mountain, 35:136:15

281

A New People in a Renewed Land, 36:16-38

288

Can These Bones Live? 37:1-14

296

Eternal Covenant of Peace, 37:15-28

302

Part 5: The Lord's Victory: Defeat of Imperialism, Arrogance, and Terror, 38:139:29

Gog's End in the Land of the Quiet People, 38:139:29

313

Part 6: The Lord's Victory: Eternal Sanctuary, Place of God's Throne, 40:148:35

The Temple Tour: Place of God's Throne, 40:144:3

325

Temple Law and the River of Life, 44:447:12

339

Yahweh Shammah: The Lord Is There, 47:1348:35

353

Page 9

Outline of Ezekiel

363

Essays

375

Abbreviations

376

Map of the Near East in Ezekiel's Time

385

Charts of Ezekiel's Temple, Gates, and Altar

386-388

Ezekiel's Division of the Land

389

Bibliography

390

Selected Resources

396

Index of Ancient Sources

398

The Author

413

Page 11

SERIES FOREWORD

The Believers Church Bible Commentary Series makes available a new tool for basic Bible study. It is published for all who seek more fully to understand the original message of Scripture and its meaning for todaySunday school teachers, members of Bible study groups, students, pastors, and other seekers. The series is based on the conviction that God is still speaking to all who will listen, and that the Holy Spirit makes the Word a living and authoritative guide for all who want to know and do God's will.

The desire to help as wide a range of readers as possible has determined the approach of the writers. Since we have chosen not to provide the biblical text from a published version, readers may continue to use the translation with which they are most familiar. The writers of the series use the New Revised Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New International Version, and the New American Standard Bible on a comparative basis. They indicate which text they follow most closely, as well as where they make their own translations. The writers have not worked alone, but in consultation with select counselors, the series' editors, and the Editorial Council.

Every volume illuminates the Scriptures; provides necessary theological, sociological, and ethical meanings; and in general, makes ''the rough places plain." Critical issues are not avoided, but neither are they moved into the foreground as debates among scholars. Each section offers explanatory notes, followed by focused articles, "The Text in Biblical Context" and "The Text in the Life of the Church." This commentary aids the interpretive process but does not try to supersede the authority of the Word and Spirit as discerned in the gathered church.

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The term believers church has often been used in the history of the church. Since the sixteenth century, it has frequently been applied to the Anabaptists and later the Mennonites, as well as to the Church of the Brethren and similar groups. As a descriptive term, it includes more than Mennonites and Brethren. Believers church now represents specific theological understandings, such as believers baptism, commitment to the Rule of Christ in Matthew 18:15-20 as crucial for church membership, belief in the power of love in all relationships, and willingness to follow Christ in the way of the cross. The writers chosen for the series stand in this tradition.

Believers church people have always been known for their emphasis on obedience to the simple meaning of Scripture. Because of this, they do not have a long history of deep historical-critical biblical scholarship. This series attempts to be faithful to the Scriptures while also taking archaeology and current biblical studies seriously. Doing this means that at many points the writers will not differ greatly from interpretations which can be found in many other good commentaries. Yet basic presuppositions about Christ, the church and its mission, God and history, human nature, the Christian life, and other doctrines do shape a writer's interpretation of Scripture. Thus this series, like all other commentaries, stands within a specific historical church tradition.

Many in this stream of the church have expressed a need for help in Bible study. This is justification enough to produce the Believers Church Bible Commentary. Nevertheless, the Holy Spirit is not bound to any tradition. May this series be an instrument in breaking down walls between Christians in North America and around the world, bringing new joy in obedience through a fuller understanding of the Word.

THE EDITORIAL COUNCIL

Page 13

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

Study helps for the book of Ezekiel should include a musical instrumenta guitar or recorder. Ezekiel is noted as a musician, one who has a beautiful voice and plays well on an instrument (33:32). Appropriately, his work is celebrated by the spirituals "Ezekiel Saw a Wheel" and "Hear the Word of the Lord."

The book of Ezekiel was used extensively throughout history in synagogue and church worship. On the north wall of the synagogue at Dura-Europos (third century A.D., modern Syria), a mural depicts in continuous narrative Ezekiel's vision of the valley of bones (EJ 6:291-292). [Abbreviations, p. 376.] From the Reformation period, Luther in his table talk harmonizes Ezekiel's prophecy against intercession with Abraham's intercession for Sodom (Ezek. 14:14; Gen. 18:23; Stoddard: 444). John Calvin publicly lectured on Ezekiel through chapter 20, after which he could no longer proceed because of illness (Calvin: 346).

Sixteenth-century Anabaptist writers refer to Ezekiel extensively. The index to Hubmaier's work lists 11 entries from Ezekiel (Hubmaier). The Selected Writings of Hans Denck has 24 entries, eight on chapter 18 (Denck). The Writings of Dirk Philips includes 37 entries, ten on chapter 34 (Dirk). The Grebel Letters and Related Documents lists 18 entries, seven on chapter 34 (Grebel). An index to the works of Menno Simons credits 51 references to the book of Ezekiel (Landis).

In the modern era, Ezekiel is best remembered by the two spirituals which arise out of the African-American church (above). Perhaps this community has been attracted to Ezekiel because, like him, they have been subjected to forced deportation.

An Anabaptist principle especially relevant to this commentary is

Page 14

the church as the hermeneutical community. Bible study is too important to be left to specialists. The congregation can often supply modern theological experiences as analogies for understanding Ezekiel, especially if the community includes refugees or persons who have suffered for their faith. The congregation interprets not merely for its own private devotions, but for life in the world. In thirty years of teaching the book of Ezekiel, the author of this commentary has learned much from the interchange in congregational and classroom settings.

A second relevant Anabaptist principle is the historic relationship of the two Testaments. The New Testament (NT) is the climax and fulfillment of the Old, through which the Old Testament (OT) is finally interpreted as authority for the church. This means that the NT itself has to be interpreted in light of the OT, as well as vice versa, if the Bible is to be understood as a total book.

A third relevant principle is that of the separation of church and state. The state is not to interfere in the legitimate affairs of the church. The prophet Ezekiel contributed to this autonomy from the state by insisting that the congregation in exile is still to obey God's law (chap. 18). On external matters, he preached that Israel is not to participate in the Near East's military culture (chap. 23). This principle of separation was won by the willingness of the exiled congregation to suffer martyrdom for its faith (cf. Dan. 3; 6; Lederach).

A fourth relevant principle for this commentary is Anabaptism's ecumenical dimension. In the sixteenth century this was expressed through debates with Reformers and Catholics on theological issues in a courtroom setting. Unfortunately, Anabaptists usually lost the debate by being hauled off to prison, drowned, or burned at the stake. In this century's happier climate for Anabaptists, the author has participated in the ecumenicity of biblical and archaeological societies, published in varied scholarly and popular magazines, and read widely the English and foreign literature on Ezekiel.

I owe a special debt to books on Ezekiel by Moshe Greenberg, Walther Zimmerli, Walther Eichrodt, Georg Fohrer, Daniel L. Smith, Gordon H. Matties, John Blenkinsopp, and Bernhard Lang. I am indebted to Lawrence Boadt and Donna L. Stevenson for my understandings of the structure of the book of Ezekiel and for recognizing the genre of the temple vision as human geography. Biblical quotations throughout the book are from the NRSV except as otherwise indicated. [Abbreviations, p. 376.]

I am indebted to the editor, Elmer A. Martens, who patiently guid-

Page 15

ed me in writing this commentary, called my attention to an important article, and provided a sounding board for my ideas. Gordon H. Matties read the manuscript and provided suggestions and criticisms of my interpretations. The Editorial Council was especially helpful in their suggestions for "The Text in the Life of the Church." Willard M. Swartley, with whom I have team-taught courses on peace and the Bible, has helped me to re-envision the message of the NT and thereby to see its dynamic relationship with the OT. Marlin E. Miller, president of the seminary and now deceased, was a constant friend who advised and encouraged me in my studies. The Research and Teaching Fellowship of the Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary discussed with me my total approach to the book and helped me on specific interpretive items and on understanding the impact of the Bible on the modern world.

Miriam Sieber Lind and Andrew Kreider improved the style and readability of the book. Mary Eleanor Bender has helped me occasionally over difficult patches in German articles and commentaries on Ezekiel. Kevin Miller at the Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary reproduced the manuscript and distributed it to readers. The staffs of the AMBS, Goshen College, and Mennonite Historical libraries gave liberally to me of their time. S. David Garber, book editor at Herald Press, simplified innumerable prolix sentences, corrected references, and suggested additions here and there. Despite inadequacies for which I am responsible, I trust that the book will be sufficiently helpful to the reader to justify the invitation of the BCBC Editorial Council that I write it.

MILLARD C. LIND

ASSOCIATED MENNONITE BIBLICAL SEMINARY

ELKHART, INDIANA

Page 16

CROSS-REFERENCES

A shorthand for cross-referencing is employed throughout the book as follows:

[Chronology of Ezekiel, p. 377.]

Sample cross-reference to essay at the back of this book. Other back-of-book essays will be cross-referenced in this style and enclosed by square bracketsall in italics.

(Zimmerli, 1979:145)

Sample reference to source listed in the Bibliography: author's name (or title, if so alphabetized) when not already given in the text, year of publication if needed to distinguish the book, volume number if needed, and page numberall enclosed by parentheses.

notes

Explanatory Notes for each section

NT

New Testament

OT

Old Testament

TBC

The Text in Biblical Context, after notes in each section. In cross-references, these essays are enclosed by parentheses as follows: ("Ichabod: 'The Glory Has Departed' " in TBC for 8:111:25).

TLC

The Text in the Life of the Church, after TBC in each section. In cross-references, these essays are enclosed by parentheses as follows: ("The Millennium in the Hope of the Church" in TLC for 40:144:3).

See page 376 for a list of abbreviations.

Page 17

AN INTERNATIONAL PROPHET REDEFINES HISTORY

An ancient Assyrian work of art portrays a line of captives from a town in Egypt. One captive carries a child; others tote exile bundles hastily prepared for a forced migration to a distant land. This exile bundle, a tragic artifact of our own century, typifies the international context in which Ezekiel worked. An exile himself in the first deportation to Babylon in 597 B.C., he was called in 593 to warn the refugees of the impending destruction of Jerusalemand of an even worse deportation to come (587). By the river Chebar (Ezek. 1:1), Ezekiel may have lived in contact with his own people and also with exiles from many Near Eastern countries. A legacy of such contact is his extensive depiction of the commerce and myths of these foreign states (chaps. 27-28).

Ezekiel as International Sentinel

The image of Ezekiel as a sentinel brackets together prophecies against both Judah (chaps. 4-24) and the nations (chaps. 25-32). His watch at the beginning and end of these judgment oracles sandwiches together and unifies these two portions (3:16-21; 33:1-20). [Inclusio, p. 379.] Ezekiel the sentinel directs the prophecies of both parts to the people of Israel.

Jerusalem was called to be a spiritual and moral exemplar to the nations (5:5) but is failing in its leadership. Instead of leading the nations, the city rebels to become like the nations (20:32). The Lord's spiritual and moral leadership will prevail, however. Reconstruction, part 4 of the book, can begin only after the rebellion does itself inafter the doomed nations turn against Jerusalem and its rebel leader; after the fugitive from Jerusalem announces to Ezekiel, The city has fallen (33:21-22). Ezekiel, God's international sentinel, warns Jeru-

Page 18

salem and the nations of the consequences of Jerusalem's rebel leadership.

Prophecies against the nations are not an afterthought but form the climax of the Lord's judgments. This is valid especially for those against Egypt, the historic oppressor who corrupts Israel's spiritual leadership (chaps. 29-32, esp. 29:16). In the book of Ezekiel, the nations are defeated not because the prophet is a patriot who loves his own country but for a moral reason. Like Judah, they are arrogant and spread terror in the land (cf. chap. 19; 32:17-32). Judgment must begin with Jerusalem, however, since it is called to be the spiritual and moral leader of these nations (chaps. 4-24; esp. 5:5-17; cf. 1 Pet. 4:17).

Does Ezekiel proclaim any hope for the nations? Unlike his contemporary Jeremiah (12:14-17), Ezekiel says little that is positive. In his judgment oracles, however, the fortunes of Sodom and its daughter cities will be restored along with the fortunes of Samaria and Jerusalem (16:53-58). In his prophecies against the nations, even Egypt is restored, though sheared of any power which would tempt Israel to trust in the military power of Egypt and thus subvert its own moral leadership (29:13-16). Furthermore, for his final invective against political arrogance and spread of terror, Ezekiel does not use this historic enemy as the Lord's antagonist. Instead, he enlists Gog, a far-off half-mythical figure (chaps. 38-39). Apparently the prophet sees the Lord being against neither Judah nor its historic enemies but against arrogance and terrorism. These are decisively rooted out by the Lord's destruction of Gog in the land of the quiet people who live in safety (38:11). This is the Lord's universal victory!

International Character of the Book's Pattern

Ezekiel's book is conventionally divided into three parts: prophecies against Judah (chaps. 1-24), prophecies against the nations (chaps. 25-32), and prophecies of Judah's reconstruction (chaps. 33-48; cf. Zimmerli, 1:1-2). This division is somewhat misleading. The literary pattern of Ezekiel's book is derived from Israel's worship and compares to that of the ancient Song of the Sea (Exod. 15:1-21; ABD, 2:721; cf. Nobile: 255). [Worship: Celebrating the Story and Covenanting, p. 382.] The hymn celebrates three things: First, the Lord is victorious over the enemy empire (Exod. 15:1-12). Second, the Lord leads "the people" through the nations to God's own mountain (15:13-17a). Third, the Lord establishes the sanctuary from which

Page 19

God will rule forever (15:17b).

The ensuing outline of chapters shows that the book of Ezekiel has a similar structure:

1.Vision of God in a Cosmic War Chariot; Ezekiel's Commission (chapters 1-3)

2.The Lord's Victory: Defeat of the Enemy (4-33)

a.Defeat of Arrogant Jerusalem and Judah (4-24; 33)

b.Defeat of Arrogant Nations and Empires (25-32)

3.The Lord's Victory: Reconstruction (34-48)

a.Resurrection: A New Community in a Renewed Land (34-37)

b.Ultimate Defeat of Imperialism, Arrogance, and Terror (38-39)

c.The Eternal Sanctuary, Place of God's Throne (40-48)

A significant difference in the book's structure is that the Lord defeats not only the arrogant nations but also arrogant Israel!

In the Contents (p. 7), the subpoints of this structure are picked up to make six parts plus "The Great Divide," chapter 33, about the fall of Jerusalem.

The Lord's International Purpose Repeated in the Book

Throughout the main segments of this outline, the Lord states the purpose of both divine judgment and salvation: You/they shall know that I am the Lord (6:7, 13-14; etc.). This "recognition formula" and its variants punctuate the book of Ezekiel about 70 times. [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] While most of these formulas refer to Israel or groups within Israel, 26 relate to the nations. Eventually the nations will acknowledge the name of Israel's Lord because of divine judgments upon them for their arrogance and violence, and because of the salvation of helpless Israel, whom they have ravaged.

The second last formula of the book, relating first to Israel and then to the nations, declares that the nations will acknowledge a moral rather than a military interpretation of history. This will happen in the land of the quiet people, when Gog's military arrogance is undone (38:11). The nations will acknowledge that the exiles' God who has no army nevertheless rules the world, and that this God rules by moral considerations: The house of Israel shall know that I am the Lord their God. . . . And the nations shall know that the house of Israel went into captivity for their iniquity (39:22-23).

The book of Ezekiel ends on a positive note, the vision of the new temple (chaps. 40-48). The purpose of this imagery is stated no-

Page 20

where in the vision but appears in a prior message (37:24-28). In this summary, the temple is the climax of Israel's new order: I . . . will set my sanctuary among them forevermore. My dwelling place shall be with them; and I will be their God, and they shall be my people (37:26b-27). The antecedent of among them is Israel, my servant Jacob (37:25). The stated purpose of this sanctuary, however, follows verse 27 and has to do with the nations: Then the nations shall know that I the Lord sanctify Israel, when my sanctuary is among them forevermore (37:28). The antecedent of among them is the nations, or perhaps Israel and the nations. The nations, or Israel and the nations, will acknowledge the place of God's throne (43:7), from which the Glory again rules (cf. 1:28; 11:22-23; 43:4-5). That place is the Lord's temple, not David's palace! (cf. 37:24-25).

The end of the story for both Israel and the nations is freedom, not enslavement by an empire. Their freedom centers in the worship of the Lord, Yahweh. From the time of Moses, this name is associated with the One who delivers from the misery of state slavery (Exod. 3:13-22).

Ezekiel, International Prophet

In the introduction to the book, Ezekiel is designated the priest (1:3). This is confirmed by his interest in law and in worship (chaps. 18; 40-48). Unable to practice his priesthood in the exile, however, Ezekiel in Babylon found his vocation as a prophet (2:5; 33:33). His first vision (1:2-3) is dated 593 B.C.; his last oracle (29:17) in 571 B.C. [Chronology of Ezekiel, p. 377.] Some of his oracles may first have been spoken. But many of them are complex and in prose, and these may first have been written. Some commentators accept only a few verses as Ezekiel's own work; others regard only a few verses as not his, the work of a disciple or editor. Because of the unique outline of the book, borrowed from the worship setting and accompanied with consecutive dating, it seems appropriate to agree with those scholars who regard Ezekiel as responsible for both writing and editing his work. It is also likely that his disciples and the synagogue were also involved in this task.

Page 21

Interpreting Ezekiel: Redefining What History Is About

A few comments are in order on the modern interpretation of the book of Ezekiel. Especially since the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, many interpreters of this book have maintained that the ''norm" for understanding the ancient Israelite community is the state, a community dependent upon human wisdom and the use or threat of military power. Julius Wellhausen (1884-1918) was quite explicit. He contended that while Moses did not found a state, yet out of the "religion of Israel, . . . the commonwealth of Israel unfolded itselfnot a holy state, but the state" (Wellhausen: 436; cf. Lind, 1990:93-94, 137-140). Wellhausen credits to Ezekiel the radical change of Israel from state to synagogue or "church." In his view, Ezekiel's mission was, after the fall of the commonwealth (587 B.C.), "to enclose the soul of prophecy in the body of a community which was not political, but founded on the temple." This he regarded as "an artificial product" (Wellhausen: 421; cf. Smith: 5-13, on Max Weber).

Certainly Ezekiel was decisive in adapting Israel's faith to the reality of the exile. Because Ezekiel changed the law of Moses on some details, his book was barely admitted into the canon. But neither the early synagogue nor the church interpreted Ezekiel as making a fundamental break with the convictions of ancient Israel. Ezekiel stands in continuity with the ancient conviction that Israel "is a people living alone, and not reckoning itself among the nations!" (Num. 23:9). Like his predecessors, Ezekiel borrows much from these nations. But he builds upon Israel's unique concept of divinity, its rejection of idol worship, its distinctive understanding of law, and its resistance to military treaties and to Near-Eastern kingship (cf. Preuss: 307).

Israel survived throughout its history and would survive in the exile, not because of its own ingenuity, but because of divine integrityGod's concern for the Name (20:1-24). The Holy One of Israel, the spiritual and moral Power of the exodus, is the shaper of Israel in the exile, the leader of world history. Echoing the conflict of the time of Samuel, God again declares to Israel that it cannot become like the nations; instead, I will be king over you (20:32-33).

Ezekiel's view demands a redefinition of what history is about. The prophet's internationalism is not one of empire; it calls for a select people to lead the nations through the example of an alternative religious, social, and economic life (18:31; 36:26; 37:28). This commentary is dedicated to the church's struggle to understand these redefining texts.

Page 22

The Relevance of Ezekiel for the Twenty-First Century

The statements of the sufferings and symbolic experiences of Jeremiah and Ezekiel form the background for the language of the four servant songs of the book of Isaiah, especially of Isaiah 53 (cf. Isa. 42:1-4; 49:1-6; 50:4-11; 52:1353:12). In this way, Ezekiel and Jeremiah contribute to the central NT interpretation of Jesus' ministry and leadership in the world: "You know that among the Gentiles those whom they recognize as their rulers lord it over them, and their great ones are tyrants over them. But it is not so among you; but whoever wishes to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wishes to be first among you must be slave of all. For the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life a ransom for many" (Mark 10:42-45; cf. Isa. 53:4-5, 12; Ezek. 4:4-6).

As suggested by Ezekiel's outline for his book and by his temple vision, the structure for this servant leadership will be that of a worshiping community. The place of God's throne is not a palace but a temple. This temple need not be extravagant. Indeed, it might only be sketched out on the sand by an exile people (43:10-12). If the church of the twenty-first century is to experience with Ezekiel the coming of God, it must identify with the millions who bear the burden of the refugee bundle. The church must sit where they sit (3:15). Those who are willing thus to redefine history may understand what the book of Ezekiel is about.

For a theological summary of Ezekiel and for further comments about its relevance, see the TBC (Text in Biblical Context) for 47:1349:35, "Yahweh Shammah: Reflections on the Political Theology of Ezekiel." Also consult the essay section on glory [Glory of the Lord, p. 378].

Page 23

PART 1

VISION OF GOD IN A COSMIC WAR CHARIOT:

EZEKIEL'S COMMISSION

Ezekiel 1:13:27

Page 24

Overview

Ezekiel's outline for his book corresponds to that of Israel's hymnology. Specifically, it is like the hymn celebrating the Lord's victory over Pharaoh's chariots (Exod. 15:1-21; cf. "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17). This victory motif appears in Ezekiel's introductory chapters in two major images. The first image is that of the glory of the Lord riding on a cosmic war chariot which, in Ezekiel's vision, reaches Mesopotamia in a storm cloud (1:1-28). This imagery introduces the entire book; it is portrayed throughout the book in the three extensive visions (1:13:15; 8:111:25; 40:148:35, esp. 43:1-9).

The second major image of this victory motif is used of a human being, Ezekiel, whom the Lord appoints as a sentinel to warn the house of Israel (3:16-27). This imagery introduces parts two and three of the book, the portrayal of the Lord's victory over both Jerusalem and the nations (4:132:32). The sentinel imagery appears at both the beginning and the end of these judgment oracles (3:16-27; 33:1-22).

The transformation of this Near-Eastern war imagery, employed also throughout the Scripture, was Ezekiel's major gift to the powerless exiles. Building upon Israel's long tradition against oppression, Ezekiel uses this imagery, not to promote violent resistance to Babylon but to oppose such revolt. But this anticipates the story.

Page 25

Ezekiel Commissioned for Public Ministry:

Ezekiel 1:13:15

Preview

Of the few people named in this book (1:2-3; 11:1; 14:14; 26:7; 34:23; 38:2), the most important name is that of Ezekiel, which occurs in the introduction (1:3; cf. 24:24). The last name of the book is that of Gog, which occurs nine times in chapters 38-39. These two persons form a polarity: Gog as mythic leader of a legendary army is the symbolic, universal, human antagonist who opposes the leadership of God and Israel. Ezekiel, on the other hand, is the human protagonistthe Lord's messenger who is to set his face against Jerusalem (chaps. 4-24; cf. 4:3; 6:2), against foreign nations and empires (chaps. 25-32; cf. 25:2; 29:2), and finally against this universal antagonist, Gog (chaps. 38-39; cf. 38:2).

Ezekiel is initiated into his task by a calla tradition which began with Moses (Exod. 3-4; cf. Jer. 1). Both Ezekiel and his hearers would have regarded such a call as entry into the public office of prophet, messenger of the Lord's word. This call narrative is Ezekiel's claim to political legitimacy. It is the reason the exiles in Babylon, the ruling elite in Jerusalem, and the nations should listen to his public pronouncements.

Called as a prophet, Ezekiel is equipped for his task by incarnating the word of God through symbolic actions. The importance of this embodiment is made clear by the structure of the call narrative. The literary structure may be called a "ring"; its center is formed by

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Ezekiel's symbolic act of eating the scroll (cf. OUTLINE, below: d, Central Core). Moving out from this center, the first ring is formed by the commission, Ezekiel's appointment to public office (c and c^1). The second ring, moving outward, is formed by the chariot vision (b and b^1). The outermost ring is formed by the introduction and conclusion, detailing time, place, persons, and events (a and a^1). [Structure of Ezekiel 1:13:15, p. 381.]

These three rings form three envelopes around Ezekiel's symbolic act of eating the scroll. This act both defines Ezekiel's task as one of communication and empowers him for it. Ezekiel's task is to communicate the Lord's leadership to the exiles as they live among the nations, both as future vision and as present reality. The ring structure confirms the editorial unity of this entire segment, a unity likely structured by Ezekiel himself.

Outline

a. Introduction, 1:1-3

b. The Vision of the Chariot, 1:4-28a

1:4-14 The Living Creatures

1:15-21 The Chariot Wheels

1:22-28a The Lord Enthroned on the Dome of the Universe

c. The Commission, 1:28b2:7

d. Central Core: Eating the Scroll, 2:83:3

c^1. The Commission, 3:4-11

b^1. The Vision of the Chariot, 3:12-13

a^1. Conclusion, 3:14-15

Explanatory Notes

Introduction 1:1-3 (Outline, a)

The introduction and conclusion (3:14-15) form the outer "ring" or "envelope" of this segment (PREVIEW). [Inclusio, p. 379.] In both is a similar phrase:

. . . as I was among the exiles by the river Chebar. (1:1)

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I came to the exiles at Tel-abib, who lived by the river Chebar. (3:15)

The introduction informs the reader of the date, persons, place, and event, and it leads into the call. The conclusion, informing the reader again of persons and place, leads the reader from Ezekiel's call to the circumstances of his ministry. Thus 1:1-3 introduces the call; the entire call narrative introduces the book.

This outer ring is essential to the meaning of the call, for it is important that the vision begins and ends in the real world, with the chariot wheels on the ground. The vision is no flight from reality into a world of fantasy. Instead, it is addressed to a displaced person and concerned with a people in a tragic situation.

The introduction begins by citing a date which has no point of reference: In the thirtieth year (1:1). Some have supposed that it designates Ezekiel's age. Though all "solutions" are only speculations, it is consistent to use the beginning of King Jehoiachin's exile as the point of reference (597 B.C.; cf. 1:2), since that is the acknowledged anchoring year for all other dates in the book. The majority of Ezekiel's oracles are dated in sequence from year 5 to year 12. [Chronology of Ezekiel, p. 377.] Then year 12 leaps to year 25 (32:1, 17; 33:21; 40:1), and year 10, preceding it, leaps to year 27 (29:1, 17). Year 30 logically follows (1:1; 568 B.C.). Perhaps this was the year when Ezekiel "published" his work (IDB, 2:207). If so, this date is a notation at the head of the book, and the story begins: As I was among the exiles . . . (1:1).

The concept of the heavens . . . opened in a vision is found only here in the OT. It is used twice in the NT. The account of Stephen's vision echoes Ezekiel's call, using similar vocabulary: spirit, glory of God, heavens opened, and Son of Man (Acts 7:55-56; Ezek. 2:2; 1:28; 1:1; 2:1, NIV). The vision recorded in Revelation 4:1-8 has many parallels to Ezekiel: the opened heavens, in the spirit, One upon the throne, the rainbow, lightning, thunder, glass like crystal, and four living creatures with faces like a human being, a lion, an ox, and an eagle.

Visions of God may be translated in the singular: a divine vision (cf. NEB). This expression is used also of the two other extended visions of the book (8:3; 40:2). Though here it likely designates Ezekiel's entire experience, it refers in the first instance to what Ezekiel saw (1:4-28a) in contrast to the audition, what he heard (1:28b2:7; 3:4-11).

Although the book is written autobiographically (cf. the pronoun

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I/me in 1:1, 4; 2:1; 6:1; 40:1; etc.), 1:2-3 is an editorial insertion written in the third person. Here the editor supplies the reference point for the dates found throughout the book: the year of the exile of King Jehoiachin, 597 B.C., when Nebuchadnezzar deported Ezekiel and the ruling classes to Babylon (2 Kings 24:10-17). [Chronology of Ezekiel, p. 377.] Counting from 597, the fifth year is 593 (the year of the vision). Jeremiah identifies this year as one in which both Jerusalem and the exiles were plotting revolt (Jer. 27-29).

The story of Jehoiachin and his three-month reign in Jerusalem is told in 2 Kings 24-25 and 2 Chronicles 36 (cf. use of his personal name in Jer. 22:24-28, "Coniah"; 24:1, "Jeconiah"). He and other Jewish captives are mentioned in an administrative text uncovered in the ruins of Babylon, in modern Iraq (ANET: 308). Jehoiachin's name also appears on several jar handles found at Beth Shemesh and Kiriath-Sepher, Judah. Dating to Zedekiah's reign, they say, "Belonging to Eliakim, steward of Yaukin" ("Yaukin'' = Jehoiachin; IDB, 2:811). Eliakim was steward of the crown property.

In this editorial insert, the prophet is identified by name, Ezekiel (1:3; cf. 24:24). Related to the name "Hezekiah" (2 Kings 19:20), Ezekiel means "God strengthens," a name appropriate to the vision. His identity as the priest (1:3), may explain his interest in dates (cf. Gen. 5), legal forms (Ezek. 18:5-13; cf. Lev. 22:10-16, the main law followed by detailed contingencies, ending with pronouncement of guilt or innocence), and temple (Ezek. 40-48). The Chaldeans (cf. 12:13; 23:14-16, 23; 16:29), an Aramean tribe, invaded Babylon in the ninth century B.C., giving to Babylon their tribal name (cf. Dan. 2:4). The word of the Lord coming to Ezekiel in this foreign land may not have surprised the exiles, since even Sinai law was given outside the land of Israel.

The river Chebar was a canal near the ancient city, Nippur, in what is now southern Iraq (1:3; cf. 1:1; 3:15, 23; 10:15, 20, 22; 43:3). The Murashu archives at Nippur, discovered in 1893 and dated to the fifth century B.C., include Jewish names and mention this canal twice. By such streams the exiles established their places of worship:

By the rivers of Babylon

there we sat down and there we wept

when we remembered Zion.

On the willows there

we hung up our harps. (Ps. 137:1-2; cf. Dan. 10:4; Acts 16:13)

Like Isaiah, Ezekiel meets the Lord in a worship setting, though a humble one (Isa. 6).

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The editor emphasizes the decisive event for Ezekiel: the word of the Lord came . . . ; its poetic parallel is, the hand of the Lord was upon him there (1:3, RSV). The clause the word of the Lord came occurs in the book some 50 times. The prophet's authority lies neither in himself nor in his office, but in the word from God, whose messenger he is. This is why Ezekiel's words were recorded and cherished throughout the millennia and why they are read today. The phrase about the hand of the Lord occurs six other times in the book (3:14, 22; 8:1; 33:22; 37:1; 40:1) and designates an ecstatic experience. Ezekiel revives this feature of early prophecy (1 Sam. 10:5-6; cf. Dan. 10:10). Here the hand both introduces the call and closes it (1:3, 3:14), an "inclusio" which forms an envelope around this material. [Inclusio, p. 379.]

The Vision of the Chariot 1:4-28a (Outline, b)

The second ring from Central Core (d), consists of the chariot vision. The corresponding sections are similar but not the same (OUTLINE, b and b^1). Section b begins with an extended description of the creatures and wheels and ascends to the enthroned Glory. A summary, section b^1, begins with the Glory and continues with the sound of wings and wheels (3:12-13). Though this vision reappears independently throughout the book (3:23; 8:111:25; 43:2-5), section b is joined so intricately to the call (2:13:4) that it likely forms an original unit with it.

1:4-14 The Living Creatures

The words I looked (ra'ah), used thoughout chapter 1, are the hallmark of vision (1:4; "saw" in 1:1, 15, 27ab, 28; cf. Rev. 4:1; 5:1; 6:1; 7:1; etc.). This vision is marked by the use of qualifiers: something like (1:5), the appearance of (1:10), something that looked like (1:13), appearance was like (1:16), like (1:7). When the enthroned Lord is described, three qualifiers are used: the likeness; like; and the appearance of a human form (1:26, NRSV/KJV). No qualifiers are employed, however, of the stormy wind (1:4). Ezekiel's vision is likely prompted by an actual windstorm coming from the north, typical weather for lower Iraq in the month of June (for other promptings of a vision, cf. Jer. 1:11; Amos 7:8; 8:1-2).

The storm, often identified with the coming of God (Job 38:1; Ps. 18), was supremely experienced in this way at Sinai (Exod. 19). On

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the other hand, when Elijah encountered God at Horeb (Sinai), God was not identified with storm or fire, but with "a still small voice" (1 Kings 19:12, KJV).

In the middle of the storm's flashing fire is something like gleaming amber or brass (cf. NEB); and in the middle of the amber, Ezekiel sees something like four living creatures (1:4-5). These creatures, called cherubim in 10:1, were associated at ancient Shiloh with the ark of the covenant (1 Sam. 4:4; cf. Exod. 25:18-22; 1 Kings 6:2336; Rev. 4:6-9). However, their four faces correspond to ancient Near Eastern art, particularly that of Assyria (1:6; ABD, 1:900). Borrowing centrally from his ancient Israelite tradition, Ezekiel does not hesitate to update this tradition with his own experience in a foreign environment. Facing four directions, each creature moved straight ahead, without turning (1:9). Psalm 18:10 associates the cherub with the "wings of the wind" and the universal, elemental powers which serve the sovereign Lord.

Interestingly, the Hebrew pronouns referring to these creatures alternate in gender. This is illustrated in Ezekiel 1:10, KJV: As for the likeness of their [masc.] faces, they [masc.] four had the face of a man ['adam, designating either or both sexes] . . . ; and they [fem.] four had the face of an ox . . . ; they [fem.] four also had the face of an eagle. One can only speculate what the writer(s) may have intended by this.

1:15-21 The Chariot Wheels

Developed in Mesopotamia at an early time, the wheel (1:15) is taken for granted by biblical writers. The parts of a wheel are named: axles, rims, spokes, and hubs (1 Kings 7:33). A wheel within a wheel may be some unfamiliar type of hub which fascinated the exiles (1:16) or an imaginative element of the vision. The rims . . . full of eyes symbolize the all-seeing character of divinity (1:18). Controlled by the spirit of the living creatures, the wheels give to the chariot instant maneuverability (1:20).

The wing and wheel are symbols of the mobility of the Lord's throne, an important part of the book's messsage. In chapters 1-3, the throne chariot appears to Ezekiel in Babylon, indicating that the exiles should no longer look back to Jerusalem for political salvation (cf. Jer. 29:6-7). Chapters 8-11 expose Jerusalem's rebellion, which is the cause of the Lord's desertion of the temple and flight by chariot to Chaldea (11:22-25). In the temple vision, the chariot returns to the

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temple community, where the Lord will reside among the people of Israel forever (43:1-7)

1:22-28a The Lord Enthroned on the Dome of the Universe

The glory of the Lord, the climax of the vision, here appears at its end (1:28); in its corresponding section (OUTLINE, b^1, 3:12-15), it appears at the beginning. This Glory refers probably not to the entire chariot but to the vision above the sky-dome (cf. "Ichabod: 'The Glory Has Departed' " in TBC for 8:111:25).

In contrast to the living creatures, which were beasts, the Lord is described as something that seemed like a human form ('adam, 1:26; cf. Gen. 1:26-27). Nevertheless, Ezekiel finally describes divinity in terms of natural phenomena and colors: like gleaming amber, like fire (1:27), and like the bow in a cloud on a rainy day (1:28). In Exodus 24:16-17, this "glory of the Lord" on the top of Mount Sinai appeared "like a devouring fire." [The Glory of the Lord, p. 378.]

In Hebrew as in English, the word bow (qeset *) designates both the rainbow and the bow which propels an arrow. The Babylonian Creation Epic (Enuma elis*) says of the god Marduk as he prepares to do battle with the goddess Tiamat:

He constructed a bow, marked it as his weapon,

Attached thereto the arrow, fixed its bow-cord.

He raised the mace, made his right hand grasp it;

Bow and quiver he hung at his side.

In front of him he set the lightening,

With a blazing flame he filled his body . . .

Then the lord raised up the flood-storm, his mighty weapon.

He mounted the storm-chariot irresistible [and] terrifying. (ANET: 66)

Here rainbow, thunder (mace), lightning, and storm-chariot are all involved in war. In the Psalms also, God wields the bow:

If one does not repent, God will whet his sword;

he has bent and strung his bow;

he has prepared his deadly weapons,

making his arrows fiery shafts. (7:12-13)

In Ezekiel's vision, the storm, thunder, lightning, a sound of tumult like the sound of an army (1:24), and then the bowthese all suggest an image of power, the Lord as a warrior. Ezekiel's first prophetic acts depict God at war against Jerusalem (chaps. 4-5); toward the end of the book, the Lord fights Gog's hordes with the storm (38:22).

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But the bow can also be a symbol of peace. An Assyrian king is depicted on the wall of his palace (9th cent. B.C.), riding in a victory procession, with his god overhead; the bows of both king and god are at rest to symbolize the peace (shalom) which follows the battle (Mendenhall: 47-48). In the Bible, after the judgment of the Flood, God covenants peace with humanity, symbolized by the bow in the sky (Gen. 9:8-17). The war is over. The bow of Ezekiel's vision may be a threat of God's judgment (cf. chaps. 4-24); it may also be a promise of the peace which God establishes beyond judgment (chaps. 33-38; cf. notes on 3:12 for further discussion).

The Commission 1:28b2:7 (Outline, c)

1:28b2:2 The First Address

The first ring around the Central Core consists of the prophet's commission (OUTLINE, c and c^1). Both c and c^1 are similarly segmented by the Lord's address: He said . . . , "Son of man" (NIV: 2:1, 3, 6; cf. 3:4, 10). [Structure of Ezekiel, p. 381.]

This title, son of man (ben 'adam), occurs over 90 times in the book. In the Psalms it parallels a term for "human beings" (as in 8:4, enos *, ben 'adam), and often has the meaning of "mortals" as contrasted with God. In Daniel 7:13, however, the Aramaic phrase (bar 'enos) is used in an exalted sense: the kingdom is taken away from the four beasts which arise out of the sea and is given to "one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven" (NIV). This exalted "son of man" is at the same time identified with the persecuted "people of the holy ones of the Most High'' (7:27; cf. Lederach: 162-176). In the Gospels, Jesus refers to himself as "Son of Man" in both the lowly, human sense (Luke 9:58) and the exalted, reigning sense (Mark 13:26; 14:62). But the phrase is applied to the resurrected Lord only in the exalted sense (Acts 7:56; Rev. 1:13). Here, the phrase designates Ezekiel's lowly humanity in service to the Enthroned One over the sky-dome (chap. 1).

The Lord's first imperative is stand up (2:1). Even in the experience of ecstasy the prophet is not "lost in the divine," as in much mysticism, but stands erect to be confronted by divinity. By my count, the word spirit/wind (ruah*, 2:2) occurs in this book 53 times. Only in context can one discern whether it designates the human spirit or divine Spirit. As in 15 other contexts, the RSV translates the term here as the Spirit (cf. NIV). The Lord infuses new life into Ezekiel by this di-

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vine address. The Spirit, emphasized at the time of the exile, is a concept of both Testaments (cf. Acts 2:17).

2:3-7 The Second Address

The Lord commissions Ezekiel by using a participial phrase: I am sending you (2:3-4; cf. 3:5-6; Exod. 3:10; Isa. 6:8; Jer. 1:7). As "one sent," Ezekiel is not to speak his own words, but is to introduce his speech with the formula: Thus says the Lord God (2:4; cf. Jer. 2:2). [Messenger Formula, p. 380.] This formula is commonly employed by the prophets, but it is also used in secular contexts (Gen. 32:3-4; 2 Kings 19:9-10). Ezekiel's commission defines what a prophet is: the Lord's official messenger, sent to communicate what the Lord says.

This understanding of a prophet (2:5) has a parallel in a letter about the foreign prophets of Mari, a city-state on the middle Euphrates River (18th cent. B.C.). The letter tells of a private person who, like an OT prophet, was sent by divinity to his king:

Dagan the god [cf. 1 Sam. 5:2-5] spoke to "a man from the town of Shakka" in a dream: ". . . Now go, I am sending you to Zimri-Lim [the king]. This is what you shall say. . . ."(Huffmon: 117)

Although the form of non-Israelite prophecy is similar to that of Hebrew prophets, its content is different in that it is nationalistic. Ezekiel's antinationalistic message is the point of the Lord's address. The word nation (pl. in Heb. of 2:3, sing. in Syriac), used only occasionally of Israel, may refer to this community as it is politically structured. The words rebels, rebelled, and transgressed often denote political rebellion (Ezek. 17:15; 2 Kings 1:1; 18:7, 20). "The essence of Israel's offense is political, or, better, theopolitical: rebellion against their divine Lord and king" (Greenberg, 1983:63). This rebellion is intergenerational: they and their ancestors rebel against God, and it continues to this very day. Perhaps worse than their ancestors, the descendants are impudent and stubborn (2:3-4; cf. 3:7).

Verses 5a and 7b form a nearly identical inclusio: whether they hear or refuse to hear (for they are a rebellious house). [Inclusio, 379.] Verse 5a emphasizes they, the rebellious house, and their choice of hearing or not hearing the Lord God. It states the result of Ezekiel's proclamation, despite their response: They shall know that there has been a prophet among them (cf. 33:33). The past tense is likely significant: they shall acknowledge him as a prophet, but only

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after he is dead. Prophets are crucial even when rejected, for the memory of their words will make possible a new direction.

This is the first of Ezekiel's many they/you shall know statements, and it "strikes the keynote of Ezekiel's prophecies" (Driver: 295). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] Usually they predict that Israel and the nations shall acknowledge the Lord as leader of history (cf. on 6:7, 10). Here it predicts that in the midst of the violent politics of the 6th century B.C., Israel will acknowledge the Lord's leadership of history through the prophet's word (cf. 5:8).

2:6-7 The Third Address

The emphatic and you (2:6) of this address follows the emphatic they of verse 5. They are a rebellious house that refuses to listen (cf. 2:7b). Ezekiel, however, must hear the Lord's four imperatives: do not be afraid (thrice!); do not be dismayed (once; 2:6). These commands do not mitigate his dangerous environment: briars, thorns (cf. 28:24), and scorpions (cf. Deut. 8:15; 1 Kings 12:11). Most Palestinian scorpions have a sting in their tail, fatal to smaller animals and painful to humans. Another translation might be, You sit (are enthroned) upon scorpions. Although the Lord is enthroned upon the sky-dome, Ezekiel is enthroned upon scorpions! This anticipates John's Gospel, where Jesus is enthroned upon the cross (cf. Brown: 912-913).

The first part of the inclusio promises a positive outcome despite Israel's response (2:5); the second part demands Ezekiel's proclamation regardless of the response (2:7; cf. 3:16-21).

Central Core: Eating the Scroll 2:83:3 (OUTLINE, d)

All three rings enfold this treasure, the vision of the scroll (see OUTLINE). Though the commission establishes the prophet's authority (c and c^1), this central core locates the source of that authority. It resides, not within the prophet himself, nor within the people, but in the word of God which the prophet is to incarnate through signs. Like the commission in 1:28b2:7, this core consists of the Lord's three addresses to the prophet (2:8; 3:1, 3).

The first address is dominated by four imperatives: hear, be not rebellious, open, eat (2:8). In biblical religion, the divine command must find a human response, if not from the people, then from a representative (Gen. 18:17-33; Jer. 5:1; Isa. 63:5). Called and empow-

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ered by a special divine act, Ezekiel must not be like that rebellious house but must yet respond to the divine imperative (cf. Isa. 6:5-8; Jer. 1:7).

As in Jeremiah's encounter (1:9), Ezekiel sees a hand . . . stretched out to him (2:9). Unlike previous prophets, however, Ezekiel experiences the word as a written scroll. The prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah were gathered up and written down after their oral delivery (Isa. 8:16; Jer. 36); but many of Ezekiel's prophecies may first have been written. Ezekiel employs this new instrument of the scroll (cf. 24:2; 37:16, 20; 43:11), just as he enlisted the new institution of the prayer place by the river Chebar (1:1). Because of the collapse of the ancient institutional centers which had passed on the oral tradition, the exiled people needed to emphasize the book.

The scroll is full of writing, front and . . . back (2:10), with words of lamentation and mourning and woe. The four imperatives of 2:8 are needed, but not because of the physical difficulty of eating the scroll. Much more important, the prophet must represent Israel by receiving a token of the scroll's judgments within his own person (cf. 4:15:4; Jer. 15:16-18; Isa. 53; Mark 10:45). The prophet must absorb and thus incarnate now the threats which Israel will meet in the future.

The second address is again dominated by imperatives: eat, eat, go, speak (3:1). Ezekiel then stands with opened . . . mouth as the Lord gives him the scroll (2:2); again he is confronted in the third address with what may be translated as imperatives: eat, fill. Of these ten imperatives of lamentation, in the three addresses, the dominant one is eat, occurring four times. Ezekiel is not merely to speak the word but to incarnate it; by prophetic acts, he himself is to become the message (cf. chaps 4-5). This prophetic background is essential for understanding the Logos (Greek: Word) teaching of John 1:14. In the Greek translation of Ezekiel, Logos occurs immediately before and after this text (2:7; 3:4).

Though its words are bitter, the scroll becomes in his mouth as sweet as honey (2:3; cf. Jer. 15:16; Ps. 119:103). Only by replacing love for country with love for God can this transformation occur.

The Commission 3:4-11 (Outline, c^1)

The dominant phrase in section c is I am sending you (2:3, 4); the dominant imperative of section c^1, its correspondent (OUTLINE), is go (3:4, 11). Here the Lord addresses Ezekiel twice (3:4-9; 10-11).

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3:4-9 The Lord's First Address

The first address differs from section c by its emphasis on Israel's rebellion. Ezekiel's problem of communication does not come from a difficult language (3:5-6) but from Israel's obstinate will: they are not willing to listen (2:7). Foreign peoples of obscure speech would have been no problem (3:6; cf. Jonah; Matt. 11:20-24).

Earlier, the Lord said to Samuel, "They have not rejected you, but they have rejected me from being king over them" (1 Sam. 8:7-8). Now God says to Ezekiel: Israel will not listen to you, for they are not willing to listen to me (3:7; cf. Exod. 4:21; Isa. 6:9-13; Jer. 1:17-19). By proclaiming God's very words (3:4), the prophet suffers with the Lord, both being rejected by the people.

The key adjective of this confrontation between people and prophet is the word hard, used four times (3:7-9). With its synonym, it describes Israel's character both externally (hard of forehead) and internally (stubborn of heart; 3:7). The meaning of these phrases is stated in 2:4, where impudent and stubborn translate the more concrete Hebrew images. To cope with this rebellion, the Lord equips Ezekiel with a face hard and forehead hard, like the hardest stone (3:8-9, my trans.). The Hebrew word translated hard (hazaq *) is a wordplay on the first component of Ezekiel's name (yehezqe'l*, "God strengthens"; notes on 1:1-3). To recast in a modern image, the Lord makes Ezekiel grow callouses.

3:10-11 The Lord's Second Address

This last address is a summary of the commission, stated only positively. The Hebrew has four imperatives, which may be translated: receive, hear, go, [enter] (3:10-11; cf. KJV). [Structure of Ezekiel, p. 381.] The first two are receptive, the last two are active. After receiving the divine word, Ezekiel is to leave the place of the vision (cf. Mark 9:5) and enter the community which he is to serve. Before this, his audience is indicated as the people of Israel (2:3), the house of Israel (3:1, 4, 5, 7), all the house of Israel (3:7). This likely means those exiled in 597 B.C. and those who stayed behind in Judea. But in the first instance, his mission is to the exiles, those deported with Ezekiel. The Lord speaks of these exiles not as "my people" but as your people (3:11), highlighting their rebellion (cf. Exod. 32:7; Hos. 1:8; 2:23).

Verse 11b is an approximation of 2:5, 7. The prophet's ministry assumes freedom, the possibility of a positive or negative response.

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The Vision of the Chariot 3:12-13 (Outline, b^1)

With its corresponding section (b, 1:4-28a), this vision forms the second ring around the center of Eating the Scroll (2:83:3; cf. PREVIEW and OUTLINE). In summary form, it highlights the glory of the Lord, the sound of the wings of the living creatures and of the wheels. Contrary to the extended vision of chapter 1, here the glory of the Lord is indicated first, suggesting its primary importance.

For the Spirit (3:12, NIV) lifting up Ezekiel, compare 3:14; 8:3; 11:1, 24; 43:5. In an Assyrian epic celebrating the new year, Sennacherib tells how on the temple gate he engraved an image of his god, riding in a chariot (Luckenbill: 140-142):

A gate of burnished copper . . . by my own artistic ability, I made, and the image of Assur, who is advancing to battle into the midst of Tiamat, as he raises his bow, riding in a chariot, bringing on the storm, . . . I engraved upon that gate. . . .

This is the image of Assur as he advances to battle into the midst of Tiamat, the image of Sennacherib, king of Assyria. . . .

I am the one who conquers, stationed in Assur's chariot.

Ezekiel's vision narrative differs radically from this depiction of the Assyrian New Year celebration. Carried away by the Spirit, Ezekiel precedes the chariot, like Elijah before Ahab (3:12; cf. 1 Kings 18:46). Though the Lord is a warrior, Ezekiel is not "one who conquers, stationed in Assur's chariot." Instead, borne away in bitterness and in the heat of [his] spirit, [he sits] stunned among the exiles (3:14-15).

Conclusion 3:14-15 (Outline, a^1)

As the introduction moves inseparably into the call narrative, so the call narrative moves inseparably into its conclusion, designating the place of Ezekiel's ministry. The hand of the Lord was strong upon me (3:14, KJV) forms an inclusio with 1:3 (RSV): And the hand of the Lord was upon him there. Though the exact location of Tel-abib is unknown, the place of the community of the exiles, like that of Ezekiel's vision, was by the river Chebar (3:15); this phrase also forms an inclusio with 1:3. [Inclusio, p. 379.]

Ezekiel seldom expresses his feelings (cf. 24:15-18), but deep emotions are evident here: I went in bitterness in the heat of my spirit. . . . I sat there among them, stunned. Like Isaiah, he is appalled by his people's condition, as revealed by the vision (cf. Isa. 6:5).

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The Text in Biblical Context

"By What Authority?"

Jesus rode into Jerusalem with messianic acclaim and thrust the salespeople from the temple (Matt. 21:1-24). Now as he taught in the temple courts, the chief priests and elders challenged him: "By what authority are you doing these things, and who gave you this authority?" (Matt. 21:23; cf. Mark 11:28: Luke 20:2). What right had he to do these public acts? The prophetic calls from Moses to Ezekiel, and to Paul in the NTspeak to this challenge.

At his call, Moses responds to God with a question about authority: "Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh, and bring the Israelites out of Egypt?" (Exod. 3:11; cf. 3:13; 4:11). He objects again, "O my Lord, I have never been eloquent" (Exod. 4:10). As though mere eloquence could somehow generate the political authority and power to bring Israel out of Egypt!

The call of Isaiah is found not where one might expect it, in chapter one, but in chapter six. It appears there likely because it was first appended to chapters 7-8, in which Isaiah countermanded King Ahaz's foreign policy. By what authority did he do this? By the authority of "the king, the Lord of hosts!" (6:5).

In Jeremiah's call, the Lord appoints him as a prophet "over nations and over kingdoms, . . . to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant" (1:10; cf. 1:18-19). Later, called into court for predicting Jerusalem's destruction, he presents his defense: "It is the Lord who sent me to prophesy against . . . this city" (26:12). Acknowledging this defense, the court declares him "not guilty"; the elders concede that the prophet has authority to call both king and people to change their religious and political course (26:17-19).

The call of Ezekiel dominates his book. Besides being basic to the call, the vision of the enthroned Glory reappears three times throughout its pages (3:22-24; 8:111:25; 43:5). This Authority will sustain Ezekiel in a hostile social environment (2:6); it will finally validate his ministry to the people (2:5).

The "suffering servant" of Isaiah 40-55 is sent to establish the Lord's justice among the nations (42:1-4). When addressing these nations, the prophet presents to them his religious-political credentials: "The Lord called me; . . . he named me" (49:1). It is too simple a task merely to restore Israel; the Lord gives him "as a light to the nations, that [God's] salvation may reach to the end of the earth" (49:6).

Paul's call, repeated three times, commands a remarkable amount of space in the compact book of Acts. The author tells how

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Paul was chosen to declare the authority of Jesus before nations, kings, and the people of Israel (9:15). In a second narrative, the author relates how Paul defends himself before an angry mob; he tells the story of how the God of their ancestors sent him to the nations as a witness to the authority of Jesus (22:14-21). In a third narrative, Paul recites again how Jesus sent him to the nations and to Israel that they might turn from darkness to light (26:17-18).

It is significant that though the prophetic-call genre is frequent in biblical literature, no such prophetic call narratives have survived from other ancient Near Eastern cultures. Perhaps such accounts were not important enough in the political history of these cultures to be recorded or to have survived. Instead, the Near Eastern parallels to biblical prophetic calls are those of the call to kingship (cf. ANET: 164; 446-447). In the Bible, such kingship calls are always secondary; they do not come to the king directly from God. Instead, they are mediated through the authority of the prophet (cf. 1 Sam. 9:1510: 13). If correct, this analysis is of major importance for the concept of authority. The basis for authority in the faith community is the divine word spoken by a defenseless prophet, not the coercion of kingship backed by military power.

"By what authority are you doing these things?" the chief priests and elders ask Jesus. Jesus replies indirectly: the source of his authority is the same as that of the prophet John (Matt. 21:24-26). The authority is from God.

The Text in the Life of the Church

The Prophetic Call in History

In Africa, a twentieth-century mass movement to Christianity has issued today in thirteen African states having a dominant Christian sense of identity with respect to culture and popular religion. "This still inadequately recognized fact has not only profoundly affected the history and future of Africa but also altered the modern worldwide balance of Christianity" (ER, 3:412).

Many of Africa's indigenous churches were founded by prophets. Two of these were Alice Lenshina (1919-1978) and William Wade Harris (c. 1865-1928). Lenshina, from Northern Rhodesia, told how she died, went to heaven, and there met a Christian spirit who directed her to return to earth and carry out God's work there. Her movement successfully drew thousands of members from many tribal backgrounds and from both rural and urban sectors. She ran into op-

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position with both the colonial government and the independence movement. Alice was imprisoned and her followers were banned. Some of them fled to Zaire, where her church continues to exist (EJ, 8:513).

The prophet Harris was educated in mission schools and in 1909 was imprisoned for leading an alleged coup d'etat against the Liberian government. While in prison, he had a vision of the angel Gabriel, who sent him on a divine mission to bring Christianity to all people yet unconverted. Released from prison in 1913, he went to the Ivory Coast, where he baptized over 100,000 people. He "created the largest mass movement to Christianity in the history of the African continent and revolutionized the religious life of the southern Ivory Coast" (ER, 6:199-201).

In the European arena, Menno Simons (c. 1496-1561) tells of a prophetic-like call which turned him around and commissioned him for a lifetime of service. His call arose out of an inner conflict, developed as a Catholic priest in his opposition to the violent Münsterite movement. The climax for Menno came in April 1535, when government forces killed about 300 Münsteritesperhaps including Menno's brotherwho had rallied at a monastery called the Old Cloister near Witmarsum, where Menno was a pastor (ME, 3:578). Thus he wrote about his conversion and call:

The blood of these people became such a burden to me that I could not endure it nor find rest in my soul. . . . My heart trembled in my body. I prayed God with sighs and tears that he would give me, a troubled sinner, the gift of his grace and create a clean heart in me, that . . . [God] would graciously forgive my unclean walk and ease-seeking life, and bestow upon me wisdom, candor, and courage, and that I might preach his exalted and adorable name and Holy Word. (Menno: 12, 670-671).

In July 1535 the "New Jerusalem" at Münster came to a tragic end. After this experience, Menno at Witmarsum began to preach a new way. By 1536, Menno became a shepherd to the flock of leaderless Anabaptists. He never turned back from this new way, though he had to minister to his followers with a price upon his life.

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Ezekiel the Sentinel:

Ezekiel 3:16-27

Preview

The call began with a military image, the glory of the Lord enthroned upon a war chariot (Ezek. 1, esp. 1:28); it is followed by this military image of Ezekiel as the Lord's sentinel. The metaphor of the Lord as warrior is transfigured by the prophet who symbolically incarnates the divine word. So also the metaphor of Ezekiel as sentinel is transmuted by the conditions of his service. Placed under house arrest, the prophet will be trussed up and made speechless (3:24-26).

The tie backward to the call is confirmed by Ezekiel's repeated experience of the Glory, the spirit, and by the Lord's continued emphasis on Israel as a rebellious house (3:23-24, 26-27; cf. 1:28; 2:2, 6; 3:9, 12). Yet the image of Ezekiel as sentinel is oriented forward; it is repeated in 33:1-9 to form an inclusio around the judgment oracles. [Inclusio, p. 379.] Until the fall of Jerusalem (33:21-22), Ezekiel the sentinel is to warn Israel (chaps. 4-24) and the nations (chaps. 25-32) of the Lord's attack upon them. The call vision introduces the entire book (cf. 10:1-22; 43:1-5); the metaphor of Ezekiel as sentinel, on the other hand, introduces only the judgment oracles (chaps. 4-32).

Outline

Ezekiel, Sentinel for the House of Israel, 3:16-21

3:16-17

Ezekiel Appointed as Sentinel

3:18-19

A Sentinel to Warn the Wicked

3:20-21

A Sentinel to Warn the Righteous

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Ezekiel Under House Arrest, 3:22-27

3:22-23

Ezekiel Moves to the Valley

3:24-27

House Arrest, Trussed Up and Speechless

Explanatory Notes

Ezekiel, Sentinel for the House of Israel 3:16-21

This text forms an inclusio with 33:1-9 and is nearly verbatim with 33:7-9 (cf. PREVIEW). But there are differences. Ezekiel 33 is addressed to the people of Israel and fixes upon them the responsibility for the fall of Jerusalem. Ezekiel 3:16-21, on the other hand, is addressed to the prophet (3:17) and deals primarily with his role and responsibility toward Israel as moral leader of the nations.

3:16-17 Ezekiel Appointed as a Sentinel

Here is the first occurrence of the revelation formula in the book of Ezekiel: The word of the Lord came to me (3:16; cf. 1:3). This formula introduces oracles to Samuel (1 Sam. 15:10), Nathan (2 Sam. 7:4), Gad (2 Sam. 24:11), a Bethel prophet (1 Kings 13:20), Jehu (1 Kings 16:1), Elijah (1 Kings 17:2, 8; 18:1; 21:17, 28), and Isaiah (2 Kings 20:4). The formula does not occur in the eighth-century (B.C.) prophetic books (except Isa. 38:4, a narrative from 2 Kings 20:4). With variations, the formula appears in the book of Jeremiah approximately 30 times and in that of Ezekiel over 60 times. These two prophets (late 7th-early 6th cent.) reach back to an earlier usage.

While the messenger formula, Thus says the Lord (Ezek. 3:27; etc.) has secular parallels (cf. 2 Kings 18:19; 19:3), this revelation formula is used only of the prophet's religious experience. Is it a ''hypostatization," with this word of the Lord an independent entity of the divine self which mediates between God and Ezekiel? If so, it may be moving toward a concept later associated with the doctrine of the Logos: "In the beginning was the Word (Logos), and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. . . . And the Word became flesh and lived among us" (John 1:1, 14). Zimmerli, a Protestant, says yes to this hypothesis (1979:145); Greenberg, a Jewish commentator, says no (1983:83). This difference illustrates how one's interpretation of an individual text may be influenced by one's larger view.

Seven days after Ezekiel arrived among the exiles at Tel-abib . . . by the river Chebar, this revelation occurs to him (3:15-16). In Ezekiel, the sentinel is a metaphor taken from the arena of warfare

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and applied to the prophet's vocation (3:17; cf. 33:1-6). This transfer is natural, however, since in ancient times the prophet was a "watchman" in warfare (2 Kings 6:8-10). With Ezekiel, the Lord is Israel's enemy: warning from me may be translated warning against me (3:17b). The Lord is the enemy because of Israel's wicked way (3:18).

3:18-21 A Sentinel to Warn the Wicked and the Righteous

This text enumerates various contingencies, often expressed in English translation by if (3:18-21). This, a legal form, reflects Ezekiel's vocation as a priest who regularly dealt with such contingencies of law (cf. Exod. 21:2-6). The pronouncement, You shall surely die, was commonly used by kings, though used by God as well (3:18; cf. 1 Sam. 14:44; 2 Kings 1:4). The purpose of Ezekiel's warnings is to save . . . life (3:18). Life is a gift from God (Gen. 2:7), the ability of an individual or group to maintain its identity in the midst of change, an identity which finally is lost in death (IDB, 3:125). In the Bible, death, the loss of identity, is caused by iniquity or sin, which is the sting of death (3:18-21; 18:30-32; 1 Cor. 15:56). The theme of death is ever present in the judgments of Ezekiel; rebellion against the way of God will result in the fall of Jerusalem and the end of most of the Jewish community (5:1-12; 33:21-22).

Although this text divides the wicked person (sing., as in RSV; pluralized in NRSV to be inclusive) from the righteous (you, singular; 3:18), Ezekiel is not here proposing individualism. He is a sentinel for the house of Israel (3:17). The covenant has been sealed between God and all the people. Each person (or household?) involved in this ceremony, however, must choose to be a part of the covenant people (cf. Josh. 24:15). In ancient Israel, each generation must make this choice (cf. Deut. 31:14-29; Josh. 23; 1 Sam. 12).

In this text, the option taken by the wicked person is assumed to be negative: if . . . he does not turn from his wickedness (3:19, RSV; or she/her). But in 18:21, the opposite possibility is stated. In this text, the option taken by the righteous person is assumed to be positive: if warned, the righteous might not yield to the temptation to sin (3:21). But in 18:24 and 33:12-13, the opposite possibility is stated. The possibility of Israel's repentance was likely present in the prophet's mind from the beginning of his ministry. But repentance was improbable, and it is not often stated as a goal of Ezekiel's preaching (cf. 2:5, 7; 3:11; 18:30-32). Whatever the effect of his preaching, however, Ezekiel as the Lord's sentinel must fulfill his own responsibility. The

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text emphasizes both negatively and positively that he must give to the people a choiceif he would not be guilty of blood (3:20; murder, Gen. 4:10), and if he would save his own life (3:18-21).

Under House Arrest, Trussed Up and Speechless 3:22-27

While the first portion of the text begins with a revelation formula (3:16), the second portion is introduced with a formula of ecstasy: the hand of the Lord was upon me there (3:22; cf. 1:3; 3:14; 37:1). This experience happens at a place well-known to the exiles: the valley (or plain, 3:22-23, NIV; 37:1), probably near the village of Tel-abib (3:15). Ezekiel's house is cited again in 8:1, where the elders meet with him (3:24; cf. 14:1; 20:1). Cords are mentioned also in 4:4-8. That Ezekiel is rendered speechless appears three times in the book. The second time it marks the end of the judgment oracles against Jerusalem (24:26-27). Ezekiel is promised that his handicap finally will be lifted when he hears the report, The city has fallen. The third text clarifies that Ezekiel is speechless, after the judgment oracles (chaps. 4-32), until the fugitive tells him of the fall of Jerusalem (33:21-22).

Ezekiel's speechlessness may help to separate his own ideas from those of the Lord's oracles. As the text states, Ezekiel is able to communicate only when he receives an oracle; then God will open his mouth (3:27). At a time when false prophecy proliferated, this may have reassured his hearers (Ezek. 13; Jer. 29).

What does one make of these handicaps? Was Ezekiel's ministry confined entirely to his own house? Was he stricken by paralysis and a speech difficulty? Since we cannot answer these questions, it is better to share Ezekiel's silence than to speculate. Persons who are acquainted with the behavior of Eastern holy men, however, inform Westerners that Ezekiel's behavior does not seem particularly unusual.

The Text in Biblical Context

Hermeneutics and the Judgment Oracles in Ezekiel

In Greek mythology, the god Hermes was the messenger and herald of the gods. Developed from this god's name, the term hermeneutics designates the science of interpretation, especially the interpretation of the Scriptures.

How does one interpret the judgment oracles of Ezekiel? Taken by themselves, they can only mean fatalism. Judgment is assured,

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and there is nothing that Israel can do about it. Only twice in these judgment oracles does the prophet give a call to repentance (14:6; 18:30-32). And if Israel should repent, seldom is there indication that this would make any difference in the outcome of history.

But the sentinel text, introducing the judgment oracles, indicates that repentance is possible, and that it would make the difference of life or death in the outcome of history (3:16-27). Each of the two portions of this text forms an inclusio at beginning and end of the judgment oracles against Judah and the nations (3:16-21 with 33:1-20; 3:22-27 with 33:21-22). [Inclusio, p. 379.] Each portion of the text is repeated with variations in another setting: the first in the approximate center of the judgment oracles, chapter 18 (esp. 18:21-24); the second at the end of the judgment oracles against Judah (24:25-27).

The series of three warning-to-turn oracles (3:16-21; 18:1-32; 33:1-20) emphasizes the freedom and responsibility of prophet and people, contradicting the seeming fatalism and inevitability of the judgment oracles. This series includes the only two places in the entire book where, in a call to repentance, the pathos and compassion of the Lord is expressed: As I live, says the Lord God, I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but that the wicked turn from their ways and live; turn back, turn back from your evil ways; for why will you die, O house of Israel? (33:11; cf. 18:23, 30-32). This call seems to stand in stark contradiction to the fatalism and inevitability of the judgment oracles. Yet by the strategic placement of this warning series, it likely qualifies the judgment oracles. If so, Ezekiel agrees with Jeremiah that the purpose of prophecy is to turn the people around so that they might be saved (cf. Ezek. 13:22; Jer. 23:14).

What is the message of the speechless series of texts (3:22-27; 24:25-27; 33:21-22)? These seem to clash with the metaphor of the sentinel, taken from the military arena (cf. 1 Sam. 26:15-16; 2 Sam. 13:34; 18:24-27; 2 Kings 9:17-20). How can one apply this sentinel metaphor to the prophet while he is under house arrest, "tied and gagged," all of the Lord's doing?

Ezekiel is called to speak to a people who became exiles in 597 B.C. because they chose the military option (2 Kings 24:8-16)and at least some of them continue to favor this option even in exile (cf. notes on Ezek. 1:2; Jer. 29:15-23). By the Lord stifling Ezekiel's casual talk, the sentinel and his audience are spared from any word which might arise out of his own imagination, illusions like those of the nationalistic prophet, Hananiah (Ezek. 13:2; Jer. 28; cf. Isa. 30:10). If this interpretation is correct, his hearers could know that

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during this period, this sentinel speaks only the oracles given him from the spiritual and moral perspective of the rule of God. His mouth is opened to express his own words only after judgment is over, only after there can be no confusion between divine and human word (24:27; 33:22).

The sentinel image, taken from the military profession and applied to Ezekiel the prophet, continues here to be used in a military context, the military threat of Babylon. As noted earlier, chapter 1 describes the Lord's storm chariot arriving among the exiles. Chapters 4-5 depict war against Jerusalem. But instead of pointing to Babylon as their enemy, Ezekiel points to the Lord as the one who besieges the city. The Lord is their enemy, because of their rebellious and wicked ways. Alienation from God and fellow Israelites, he says, is the cause of their lack of security, rather than the military threat of the Babylonian army!

The metaphor of sentinel was used of the prophets long before Ezekiel (Hos. 9:8; Isa. 21:6-10; cf. 52:8). All of these great prophets prophesied in the context of warfare or imminent warfare. Their message pointed Israel to a spiritual and moral rather than to a military solution. Will Ezekiel's hearers listen to such a message? The Lord promises that some may listen and may thus be savedprophecy is meant to be socially useful. But even if there is no response, as a faithful sentinel, Ezekiel will save his own life.

The Text in the Life of the Church

The Sentinel's Trumpet

As a parable of his own work, Karl Barth tells a story from his childhood. "Feeling his way up a dark church tower, he unexpectedly caught hold of a bell-rope instead of a handrail, and to his horror heard the great bell ringing out above him, and audible not only to him but to others around" (Busch: 20). Like a sentinel's trumpet, the second edition of Barth's commentary on Romans blasted out an alarm over Switzerland, Germany, and the world (1922). From the shambles of World War I, he called the church and its theologians back to the principle of the Reformation, the authority of the Bible for the church's life and message to the world.

Barth continued to ring out the warning of the church bells by his teaching in the universities, by his preaching in the churches, and by his many publications. He emphasized that the word of God as expressed in the Old and New Testaments is the task of theology, and

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that it was partly because the church had forsaken this task that the world had come to its then-present crisis.

Barth's bell-ringing made him collide with Hitler's Third Reich. Preaching that Jesus Christ was a Jew, Barth rejected the Nazi decree that only Aryans might be members of the German Evangelical Church. Opposing with others the integration of the Evangelical Church into the Nazi state, he was instrumental in his synod's adoption of the "Barmen Declaration" (1934). This declaration rejected "all authorities other than Jesus Christ" and became the lodestar for the Confessing Church. Barth refused to take the Nazi oath of allegiance and was dismissed from his teaching post at Bonn University. When Barth was banished to Switzerland, his friend Martin Niemöller, a Prussian who became a pacifist, emerged as the leading opponent of Nazism within the Evangelical Church of Germany.

Blasting a trumpet in the tradition of Ezekiel is not a nostalgic call to relive the events and issues of the past. On the contrary, it is a summons to shape life today in the light of certain portentous events which give threat and promise to our future.

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PART 2

THE LORD'S VICTORY OVER ARROGANT JERUSALEM AND JUDAH

Ezekiel 4:124:27

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Overview

Although the outline of Ezekiel's book compares to that of Israel's "Song of the Sea" (Exod. 15:1-18), the theme of part two, the Lord's victory over God's own people, is not included in the hymn. But the theme is a major one of Israel's ancient hymnology (Ps. 78; Deut. 32). Ezekiel's extensive use of it in this portion of the book is evidence of his moral and spiritual orientation rather than a nationalistic one. Although the structure of this long portion is not easily discerned, Ezekiel's three meetings with the elders may provide us with a clue (8:111:25; 14:1-11; 20:1-44). Their importance is indicated by the fact that of the three dates in this portion, two designate the times of these meetings (8:1; 20:1). Part two may then be structured:

1. From pantomiming against Jerusalem to a first meeting with the elders (4:111:25)

2. From pantomiming against official policy to a second meeting with the elders (12:114:23)

3. Metaphors against Jerusalem and its royal policy and a third meeting with the elders (15:120:44)

4. From pantomiming the sword's march toward Jerusalem to pantomiming the fall of the city (20:4524:27)

This segmenting shows that although Ezekiel speaks mainly of Jerusalem, he addresses the concerns of the elders and the exiled community. The elders once were leaders of that city and are presently wondering how they might act now for the best interests of Jerusalem and of their Lord. Although this segmenting is not reflected in the outline of this commentary, the material is highlighted in this way. See PREVIEWS for Ezekiel 4:15:17 and 8:111:25; 12:1-20 and 14:1-23; 15:1-8 and 20:1-44; 20:4521:32 and 24:15-27.

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Ezekiel's Street Theater:

Pantomime and Sermon:

Ezekiel 4:15:17

Preview

This is the sentinel's first blast of the trumpet, warning his people against God, their enemy, coming in judgment (cf. 3:17). To warn his people, Ezekiel employs "street theater," using a pantomime which he interprets by a sermon (4:15:4; 5:1-17; see TLC below). The three scenes of the pantomime depict the future siege of Jerusalem and its outcome, ascending in ever-increasing pathos and suffering for the prophet. The first scene sets the stage for all three, with Ezekiel acting the part of God in the siege of the city (4:1-8). In addition, this siege forms an inclusio (4:1-3, 7-8); in its central core Ezekiel acts also the part of the people by bearing the punishment of the siege (4:4-6; cf. OUTLINE, below). [Inclusio, p. 379.]

Ezekiel's second scene depicts the famine conditions which will develop within the besieged city (4:9-17). In the third scene, Ezekiel enacts the end of the siege, destruction of the three portions of the population; only a few are saved of the last portion (5:3-4).

Throughout these three scenes, the prophet is lying upon his side, acting both the part of the Besieger and bearing the punishment of the besieged.

Since Ezekiel is a priest, dung is unclean, and in the second scene he cries out in protest; the punishment is too great to bear (4:14-15). Again in the third scene (5:1-4) he bears the punishment for his peo-

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pie, severe because a priest is forbidden to have a shaved head.

As he sets his face toward the siege of Jerusalem (4:7), Ezekiel from time to time injects into this silent performance his first sermon (5:5-17). Perhaps he also gives his second and third sermons, "Against the Mountains of Israel" (chap. 6) and "The End Has Come" (chap. 7). Or do these follow the pantomime?

Although this pantomime and sermon are directed against Jerusalem, the exiles in Babylon are Ezekiel's immediate audience. In part two of the book, this first becomes explicit when the elders meet with Ezekiel in his house (8:111:25). Chapters 4-11 may therefore be regarded as the first segment of part two: "From pantomiming against Jerusalem to a first meeting with the elders" (see OVERVIEW of Ezekiel 4:124:27).

These oracles, moving toward a climax, are directed against Jerusalem (4:15:17), against the mountains of Israel (6:1-14), against the whole land (7:1-27), and finally against the temple (8:111:25).

Outline

Ezekiel's Pantomime, 4:15:4

4:1-8

First Scene: the Siege

Envelope a: Acting Out the Siege, 4:1-3

Core Act: Ezekiel Bears the Punishment, 4:4-6

Envelope a^1: Acting Out the Siege, 4:7-8

4:9-17

Second Scene: Ezekiel on Famine Rations

5:1-4

Third Scene: Ezekiel Shaves Head and Beard

Ezekiel's First Sermon: Homily on the Pantomime, 5:5-17

5:5

Setting for Indictment: God's Act of Grace

5:6-7

First Indictment: Israel's Rebellion Against Grace

5:8-12

The Lord Judges Jerusalem

5:13-17

The People Shall Know: The Lord Has Spoken

Explanatory Notes

A key word giving unity to these chapters is siege, appearing as a noun (Heb.: masor *), translated siegeworks (4:2) and siege (4:3, 7-8; 5:2); and as a verb (sur*), translated press the siege (4:3) and bind (5:3). Jerusalem is named in 4:1, 7, 16; and 5:5; it is called the city in 4:3 and 5:2ab.

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Ezekiel's Pantomime 4:15:4

The scenes of the pantomime are structured by the address formula in long and short form: and you, son of man (4:1; 5:1; NIV); and you (4:3-4, translated then in NIV; 4:9). There also are formulas of conversational exchange: the Lord said (4:13), then I said (4:14), then he said to me (4:15-16).

4:1-8 First Scene: The Siege

Acting Out the Siege (Envelope a) 4:1-3; (Envelope a^1) 4:7-8

The miming is to begin by acting out the siege; this act forms an envelope around the core act, in which Ezekiel is to bear the punishment (4:4-6). [Inclusio, p. 379.] One may imagine that the exiles expected Ezekiel to preach his first sermon on the Lord's war against Babylon. Instead, as the first stage in this drama, he is to portray the Lord's war against Jerusalem (4:1)!

The world's most ancient maps are etchings of cities upon clay sun-dried to brick (4:1). A brick-map of Nippur, a city close to where Ezekiel lived, is presently in the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania (IDB, 3:553). On his map, Ezekiel is to sketch out the siegeworks of the enemy army (4:2). In ancient warfare, the ramp was a heap of earth and stone sloping upward against a city wall; on it were stationed battering rams used to breach the wall. Troops were lodged in the camps (ANEP, nos. 361, 368, 372-373).

In the second stage of this drama, Then take an iron plate (4:3), Ezekiel represents not Nebuchadnezzar but the Lord as Besieger of the city. The command set your face toward it (4:3; cf. 4:7) occurs with variations throughout the book; it is a symbolic act, joined with threats of judgment, in which the face is turned toward or against the object (6:1; 13:17; 14:8; 15:7; 20:46; 25:2; 29:2; etc.). Ezekiel is strongly influenced here and throughout his book by Levitical threats (Lev. 26:17-45). The iron plate is a flat griddle used in baking (4:3; Lev. 2:5). Placed between Ezekiel and the map, it signifies that the Lord is blockaded from the city (cf. Jer. 14:11-12; 15:1). This act of siege is symbolic, a sign of the judgment to come (4:3).

Ezekiel 4:1-3 and 4:7-8 form an envelope around 4:4-6, which continues the Lord's instructions to Ezekiel for the siege (note the inclusio, set your face toward the siege of Jerusalem, 4:3, 7). Commanded to lie upon his side (paralyzed? 4:8; cf. 4:4, 6), Ezekiel is told to prophesy against the city (4:7). The sermon attached to this drama

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is such a prophecy (5:5-17). It was likely spoken at appropriate intervals throughout this pantomime rather than only at its end.

Core Act: Ezekiel Bears the Punishment 4:4-6

This symbolic act is set within the envelope of the siege pantomime (4:1-3 and 7-8). It is not an act apart from the siege itself but is integral to it. In the siege, Ezekiel as God's representative inflicts symbolic punishment; here, as representative of both Israel (Northern Kingdom, 4:5) and Judah (4:6), he is to bear the punishment of the siege symbolically and miserably (4:5). Each day of the prophet's suffering represents a year of exile, 390 lying on his left side for Israel and 40 on his right side for Judah. The ancient Greek translation reduces the number 390 to 190 (4:5).

There has been a long debate on the meaning of these numbers, and the simplest proposed solution is probably the best. In the Hebrew text, the total of both numbers (390 + 40) is 430, the traditional number of years that Israel was in Egypt (Exod. 12:40; Eichrodt: 85). In the exilic prophets, the Egyptian servitude is used as a pattern for the exile, from which Israel will be delivered (Isa. 43:1619; Jer. 31:2-6, 31-33). No one knows why Israel is allocated 390 years and Judah only 40which suggests the generation of wilderness wanderings (Num. 14:34-35). Israel did have the longer exile; it ceased to exist nearly 150 years before this prophecy.

The statement bear their/the punishment, occurring three times (4:4-6), appears only here in the book. Elsewhere in Ezekiel, sinners will bear their own punishment (14:10; 16:52; 18:20; 23:49). The Hebrew word ('awon) may be translated iniquity, guilt, punishment.

The statement is appropriate to the priest Ezekiel, since it has its home in priestly writings. Aaron with his house and sons ''shall bear responsibility for offenses connected with the sanctuary and . . . the priesthood" (Num. 18:1). On the Day of Atonement, a goat was enlisted to "bear on itself all [Israel's] iniquities . . . " (Lev. 16:22).

Most important, God bears Israel's iniquity: "The Lord is slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love, forgiving [bearing] iniquity and transgression . . ." (Num. 14:18-19). Here "bearing iniquity" is parallel to the word "forgive." In Isaiah 53 as in Ezekiel 4, the prophet (or Israel? cf. Acts 8:34) "bore the sin of many" (53:12). Peter and the early church testify that this Scripture is fulfilled preeminently in the death of Jesus (1 Pet. 2:24; cf. Mark 10:45).

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4:9-17 Second Scene: Ezekiel on Famine Rations

In this act, the prophet participates in Judah's future war famine, adding to the punishment which he bears. Wheat and barley, beans and lentils, millet and spelt (4:9) indicate the variety of staples available to the ancient oriental. Mixed together, they do not make a good bread. Twenty shekels' weight a day of this (4:10; 1/2 lb.), and one sixth of a hin of water a day (4:11; 2/3 of a qt.; cf. NIV notes) are famine rations.

Although already at their calls, Moses and Jeremiah objected to the Lord's word (Exod. 3:11; Jer. 1:6), Ezekiel utters no protest until nowonly when commanded to violate priestly law, to eat unclean food (4:12-14; cf. Acts 10:14)! He regards human excrement as unclean (cf. Deut. 23:13-14). Cow dung, on the other hand, was acceptable (Ezek. 4:15). It is still used as fuel in India and a century ago on the American prairie.

5:1-4 Third Scene: Ezekiel Shaves Head and Beard

This act is opened by full direct address: And you, O mortal. [Son of man, p. 381.] Ezekiel's humiliation is complete with this command to shave head and beard (5:1), again an act which violates Israel's priestly vocation (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20). Shaving of head and beard was part of the lament ceremony practiced at a national defeat (Jer. 48:37-38). Though a razor was likely available, Ezekiel is commanded to shave with a sword, a military instrument involved in the city's defeat (5:1). As the act of famine rations is simultaneous with the act of lying on his side (4:9), so the act of shaving is tied to the act of siege by burning one third of the hair on the brick and its relief drawing of the city (4:1; 5:2). This symbolized defeat, the disastrous end of the siege. Even the small number saved from the last portionwhich he is to scatter to the windwill not escape unscathed (5:3).

The climax of Ezekiel's message of judgment to the exiles is that from there a fire will come out against all the house of Israel (5:4). The exiles in Babylon will not escape the disaster of the Jerusalem revolt, which they are encouraging (cf. Jer. 29).

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Ezekiel's First Sermon: Homily on the Pantomime 5:5-17

This first sermon explains the three scenes of the pantomime. Ezekiel may have preached it as he lay upon his side, simulating the siege (4:7). The structure of the sermon is the initial indictment (5:5-6), followed by four occurrences of therefore (NIV) which introduce both indictments and judgments (Heb.: laken, 5:7, 8, 10, 11). The sermon concludes with the repeated statement: I, the Lord, have spoken (5:13, 15, 17). The purpose of judgment, mimed out and proclaimed by Ezekiel before it happens, is that Israel might acknowledge the power of the Lord's word to determine their future (5:13). Ezekiel's purpose both in warning and bearing punishment is to save the community from death (3:21).

5:5 Setting for Indictment: God's Act of Grace (Past)

After the messenger formula, Ezekiel identifies the map on the brick: This is Jerusalem (5:5; cf. 4:1). His observers can no longer speculate that the map may portray another city. Ezekiel first emphasizes God's grace, the favored position of Jerusalem among the nations. The nations are an important element of this sermon; the word occurs seven times (5:5, 6, 7bd, 8, 14, 15). The community of Israel is to have a missionary effect upon the nations by the example of its life.

The center (Heb: betok) may be translated "among" (NEB) or "middle" (JB). In 38:12 the word center translates another Hebrew word (tabbur *) which might be rendered navel (NRSV note). Although the image of center compares to the Near Eastern image of the navel of the earththat geographic, economic, and political center from which fertility flows to bless the earthEzekiel here reorients the image to express Jerusalem's vocation as moral leader of the nations.

Ezekiel's thought is related to that of Exodus 19:4-6. The Lord brought Israel out of Egypt and into a covenant relationship with God at Sinai. As Israel obeyed the Lord's voice and kept covenant, they would be the Lord's "treasured possession out of all the peoples, . . . a priestly kingdom and a holy nation." Israel was to lead the nations in a new kind of law and justice. Unlike the "navel" concept, Israel did not achieve this position by pride of birth or at creation, but by the Lord's historic appointment. At the call of Abraham and at the covenant ceremony at Sinai, the Lord set Israel in the center of the nations.

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5:6-7 First Indictment: Israel's Rebellion Against Grace (Past)

Israel responded to this gracious act by rebelling against the Lord's ordinances and statutes (5:6). Called to lead the nations in righteousness and justice, Israel became more wicked than the nations (cf. 2 Chron. 33:9). [Economic Justice, p. 377.] One would expect that the word therefore (Heb.: laken, 5:7) would introduce the Lord's judgment. Contrary to this expectation, the indictment is repeateda common procedure in judgment oracles. The Lord seems hesitant to pronounce judgment, concentrating upon its cause. The indictment is further repeated in the judgment oracles that follow.

Translating the best Hebrew text, verse 5:7b should read: And my statutes you have not done, and according to the statutes of the nations which are around about, you have not done (cf. RSV note). When Israel rejected the Lord's statutes, it then fell below the level even of the human statutes of the nations round about. Refusing to be the head, Israel became the tail (cf. Deut. 28:13).

5:8-12 The Lord Judges Jerusalem (Present)

With the second therefore (Heb.: laken, 5:8), the Lord pronounces judgment, though in general terms. The main point is the reversed relationship; Israel's enemy is not Babylon but the Lord: I, I myself, am coming against you. A slight variant of this statement expresses the Lord's war against Nineveh, Israel's historic enemy of a century earlier (Nah. 2:13a). Now the Lord's war is against Israel. This judgment will be executed in the sight of the nations, nations whom Israel was to have led in righteousness and justice. Nearly two centuries earlier, Amos had called Philistia and Egypt to assemble on Mount Samaria "to see what great tumults are within it, and what oppressions are in its midst" (Amos 3:9).

The indictment reappears, again giving the reason for this judgment: and because (5:9). In Deuteronomy, the word abhorrent or abomination (KJV) refers to idolatry (7:25-26; 13:12-14; 17:2-4), as probably here. Israel had violated loyalty to God, the first and second commandments. Israel's judgment would be like nothing God had ever done in the past or would do again in the future.

The third therefore (Heb.: laken, 5:10, surely) introduces the first specific judgment, cannibalismthe survival of the fittest. In his prediction that children shall eat their parents or fathers (RSV), Ezekiel exceeds the curse of Leviticus 26:26, by which he is influenced (cf. Deut. 28:53-57; Jer. 19:9; 2 Kings 6:26-31). This cannibal-

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ism is the result of famine (cf. second scene of pantomime, 4:16-17). And any of you who survive I will scatter (5:10) keynotes the point of the third scene, anticipating the next therefore (twice in 5:11, NRSV).

The last therefore (Heb.: laken, 5:11) begins with the Lord's oath: As I live. . . . Here again, the pronouncement of judgment is interrupted by another indictment: because you have defiled my sanctuary. Jerusalem's idolatry is committed even in the temple (cf. chaps. 811). As a priest, Ezekiel is especially zealous for the sanctuary (cf. chaps. 4048; esp. 43:7). The sermon ends this last therefore by summarizing the judgment meaning of the third pantomime scene (5:12; cf. 5:1-4).

5:13-17 The People Shall Know (Fut.): The Lord Has Spoken

Perhaps because there are so many false prophets, Ezekiel emphasizes the Lord's authority, represented by himself: I, the Lord, have spoken (5:13, 15, 17; cf. chap. 13; Jer. 28-29). Ezekiel closes by stating this goal of the pantomime and of the sermon: And they shall know . . . (5:13; cf. 5:15, 17). This is the second occurrence of a recognition formula in this book (cf. 2:5). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

Jealousy (Heb.: qin'ah) and fury (hemah *) are synonyms (cf. 16:38, 42; 23:25; 36:6). God's jealousy is provoked by idolatry (Ezek. 8:3, 5; cf. Exod. 20:3-5) and is equated with divine holiness (cf. Ezek. 20:39; Josh. 24:19; cf. IDB, 2:807). Ezekiel compares it to the relationship between marriage partners (23:1-4). Near Eastern parallels exist not in religious but political covenants; the vassal must pledge loyalty to his suzerain and to him only (ANET: 204). Such is the relationship between Israel and God.

In recognizing that the Lord has spoken in divine judgment, Israel also will acknowledge the correctness of the two indictments: Israel's rebellion against the Lord's statutes (5:6-7) and defilement of the sanctuary (5:9, 11). In the first, Israel turned its back upon the way of the Lord; in the second, Israel turned its face toward the power gods, gods which Israel tried to manipulate for its own advantage.

Israel, placed at the center of the nations, will become an object of mocking among the nations (5:14), a warning to the nations (5:15). Again, the pronouncements of judgment at the end of this sermon illumine the silent gestures of the pantomime: when I . . . break your staff of bread (5:16; 4:16); I will bring the sword upon you (5:17; 5:2). Though the Lord is a warrior, God did not and does not place a

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warrior people at the center of the nations. Judah will fail politically because it failed as the Lord's moral leader of these nations (5:6).

The Text in Biblical Context

Christus Victor

Centrally, the NT concept of the meaning of Christ's death and resurrection is Christus Victor (Christ is Victor, Col. 2:13-15). This triumph over the powers has its roots in the OT: the Lord's victory over Pharaoh (Exod. 1-15), God's pronouncement of death upon unjust gods (Ps. 82), and God's victory over Jerusalem (Ezek. 4-5).

An OT analogy for understanding Jesus' substitutionary sacrifice is the Lord's statement to Ezekiel: You shall bear their punishment (4:4-6). Here are a few comments on this analogy.

1. The command to Ezekiel to bear the people's punishment is enfolded within the pantomime scene of the Lord inflicting the punishment (notes on 4:3, 7). The Lord, spiritual and political leader of history, expresses this leadership by war against Jerusalem. Preached intermittently throughout the 430 days that Ezekiel lies on his side, the sermon states the reason for this judgment. His message mentions the nations seven times and condemns Jerusalem for violating its calling as an alternative community and for failing to lead these nations in a new direction.

2. Ezekiel's vocation is to proclaim this future judgment by his symbolic acts, thus bearing tokens of the judgment before it happens. He suffers now so that the Israelites might escape by changing their ways, by repenting. They may or may not repent before the judgment happens. Yet even in the midst of judgment, they may remember the prophet's suffering and change their direction. The servant of Isaiah 40-55 bore the punishment because he preached "justice to the nations" (Isa. 42:1-4). Jesus bore the punishment because he came "to bring good news to the poor" and "to proclaim release to the captives" (Luke 4:18-19, 28-30; Acts 8:30-35). Bearing the punishment is inseparable from the prophet's vocation as proclaimer of the Lord's justice. It is a part of the Lord's war, of Christ's victory over the powers.

3. Though the concept of "bearing the punishment" is closely tied to the sacrificial system, here it becomes entirely personal. Ezekiel, in his own person, bears the punishment. The prophets by their symbolic acts prefigure Jesus who "entered once for all into the Holy Place,

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not with the blood of goats and calves, but with his own blood" (Heb. 9:12).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Street Theater

How does one understand the strange actions of Ezekiel? Are these symbolic actions possible? If they are possible, what is his purpose? Or is he mad?

For Westerners, such a pantomime may stretch credulity. Yet Asians, as a student from India once explained to a class, compare such actions with those of a Hindu fakir, a holy man. This student found it quite credible that Ezekiel would lie upon his side for 390 days and prepare a meal with a few slow, economical arm movements, with the rest of the body rigid.

If Ezekiel's acts are credible in that culture, what about his purpose? Here the fakir will not help us, for Ezekiel's concerns are not directed toward the mythological but toward public concerns of social ethics, toward war and peace. Bernhard Lang, a biblical sociologist, proposes a new reading of Ezekiel's symbolic acts as street theater (Lang, 1986:297-316). He reports that mimic productions played a large role in ancient Mesopotamia, in worship, politics, and entertainment. One may profitably compare Jeremiah's symbolic actions regarding Babylon's takeover of Judah (Jer. 13, 16, 18, 19, 27-28, 32, 43, 51; cf. 2 Kings 22:11; Isa. 20).

Lang cites many examples of such street theater from the Middle Ages to the present. He tells an Arab author's story of the Byzantines in A.D. 1100. They wished to attack the Muslims, divided after the death of their caliph. A wise man advised them not to attack and explained his position by setting two ferocious dogs upon each other. As they fought, he released upon them a wolf, whereupon the dogs quit their fighting to turn upon their common enemy. Lang also cites Martin Luther initiating the Reformation by publicly burning the 1520 papal letter censuring his writings; and Nikita Khrushchev banging his shoe on the table in 1960 at the U.N.

The Doukhobors, believing in the authority of the inner voice and rejecting civil authority, on occasion have disrobed in public to make their point, not too unlike Isaiah (20:2-4). In the 1970s, some persons made themselves a living torch to protest the Vietnam war. Less drastic, the street became the stage for informal groups who made their point by pantomime, posters, and speeches. The street may be-

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come "the last school of the nation" when the establishment imposes censorship.

Ezekiel practiced street theater in his house, a public meeting place for the exiles. The church might make judicious use of his method. "Social injustice should be confronted dramatically," though with respect for others (Martens, 1986:311-312).

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You Mountains of Israel, Hear the Word of the Lord:

Ezekiel 6:1-14

Preview

Anticipating their redemption, the exiles turn their faces westward from the flat plain of the southern Euphrates toward their mountainous homeland. Ezekiel also turns his face westward, not in hope of redemption, but to target the source of the exiles' predicament: idolatry upon the mountains. In his first sermon, Ezekiel has scored Jerusalem for deserting its vocation as leader of the nations (5:5-7). In this second sermon, Ezekiel zeros in on the high places, which Josiah tried to eliminate in his reform (6:6; 2 Kings 23). Both Jerusalem and the high places are guilty, says Ezekiel; the way to redemption is not to turn back there.

Outline

6:1-7

Prophesy Against the Mountains

6:8-10

Some of You Shall Escape

6:11-14

Alas for All the Vile Abominations!

Explanatory Notes

This chapter is made up of three paragraphs, the first and last dominated by a command to do a symbolic act: Set your face (6:1). Clap

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your hands and stamp your foot (6:11). Sandwiched between these two symbolic acts is a paragraph which speaks of a remnant (6:8-10, KJV). Movement in the chapter is indicated by the pronouns: in the first paragraph, the prophet is to speak with direct address, you (pl., 6:2-7); in the last paragraph, the prophet is to use indirect address, they (6:11-14; but direct in 6:13). The sandwiched paragraph provides the transition, beginning with direct address, you (pl.), and ending with indirect address, they (6:8, 10).

The three paragraphs form a whole. All speak of judgment. They are introduced by one revelation formula (6:1). By repetition the last paragraph forms an envelope with the first: mountains, hills, altars, slain, idols (6:2-4, 13). [Inclusio, p. 379.]

Prophesy Against the Mountains 6:1-7

Likely at his house, with exiles as the audience (cf. 3:22-27; 8:1), Ezekiel is commanded to turn his face to the west, toward the mountains of his far-off homeland. This compares with the symbolic acts of 4:15:4. Geographically, the mountains of Israel with their ravines and valleys (6:2-3) present a contrast to the flat Iraqi plain, where the exiles live. On their summits are high places, simple installations for worship, from which blessing was thought to flow to the surrounding environment. Inherited from the Canaanites, these places were used for Israelite worship until Josiah's reform, when Jerusalem became the only official center for worship (2 Kings 23:5-20; Deut. 12). Although Israel's God may have been worshiped at many of these places, they were officially rejected because of associations with Baal worship. Psalm 121:1-2 denies that help comes from these hills. On this point, Ezekiel agrees with Josiah's reform (cf. Ezek. 18:6).

Worship on the mountains brings not help, but death: Behold, I, I myself will bring a sword upon you (6:3). Threat against worship of other gods is attached to the first and second commandment (Deut. 5:9-10; Exod. 20:5-6), a threat which all the great prophets underline. The emphatic pronoun I indicates that the Lord, Israel's Savior from Egypt and from false Canaanite power gods, is the source of Israel's present insecurity. The basis for Ezekiel's threat is monotheism, the conviction that one God rules history and controls all other powers (cf. TBC below).

The main installations of the high places were the altars (6:4). There sacrifices were offered (cf. 1 Kings 18:30-35). Only here does Ezekiel use the Hebrew word for incense stands (6:4, 6); the word oc-

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curs in a few other late texts (cf. 2 Chron. 34:4). Translated images in KJV, the meaning of the Hebrew word was unknown until a small altar for burning incense was dug up about a half-century ago (IDB, 2:699-700). Its purpose may be indicated in 6:13, to offer a pleasing odor to the idol. Instead of issuing in security and life, the high places will be polluted by corpses lying before Israel's idols, and bones scattered about the altars (6:5; cf. 2 Kings 23:14-16). [Worship, p. 382.]

The second person (pl.) pronoun you recurs throughout these verses, especially in 6:6: your towns, . . . your high places, . . . your altars, . . . your incense stands. All these are summed up as your workscontrasting with the structure of chapters 40-48, a temple not made with human hands (cf. 2 Cor. 5:1).

Some of You Shall Escape 6:8-10

KJV begins this paragraph, Yet I will leave a remnant (Heb.: palit *). This word is translated fugitive in 24:26-27 (RSV), referring to one who will escape the sword when Nebuchadnezzar sacks Jerusalem. Remnant takes on theological significance in Ezra 9:8: ''But now for a brief moment favor has been shown by the Lord our God, who has left us a remnant."

In Ezekiel 6:9-10, three verbs describe the acts and feelings of these fugitives: They shall remember, be loathsome, shall know. Hosea 2:13 reports the Lord saying that Israel "went after her lovers, and forgot me." The opposite of forgetting is to remember (Ezek. 6:9), to recall and respond to God's redemptive acts (cf. Deut. 15:15; 16:12). Here it is to recall God's pain, how I was crushed by their wanton heart. This is one of the few places where Ezekiel depicts the compassion of God (cf. Hos. 11:8-9). While the heart refers to the inner life, the eyes refer to the outer windows upon the world. Like the heart, the eyes turn faithlessly after idols.

The word idols occurs six times in this chapter (Ezek. 6:4, 5, 6, 9, 13b, 13d); it is used in connection with the eyes in two other texts (18:6, 15; 33:25). In Hebrew, Ezekiel's word choice may have had four-letter word connotations, closely related to the term for human excrement (4:12, 15; cf. Deut. 29:17). Ezekiel 6:13 may be ribald humor: They offered pleasing odor to all their idols. That is, they perfumed their stinky idols. [Worship, p. 382.]

The second verb used of these fugitives describes their feelings, caused by what they remember: They will be loathsome in their own sight (6:9). Because of his humiliation, Job said, "I loathe my life"

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(10:1). Ezekiel uses the word in 20:43, again in connection with the word remember. There, after returning from exile to their own land, they shall remember their ways and doings and will loathe themselves for all their evils. This is their repentance, change of mind, heart, and ways.

After remembering the Lord and loathing themselves, the remnant will know (6:10). Each of these three paragraphs closes with the recognition formula, the last including two formulas (6:7, 10, 13, 14). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] The fugitives will know that the Lord, who seems powerless and irrelevant to their concern for security, is indeed the God who rules history. They will know this not simply because of suffering, but because in their suffering, they carry the memory of the prophet's word, a word whose fulfillment they will one day recognize (cf. 2:5).

Alas for All the Vile Abominations 6:11-14

This oracle echoes 6:1-7, saying little new. Like that, it begins with a symbolic act. Sometimes hand clapping symbolizes joy (Ps. 47:1), but here clap your hands and stamp your foot expresses anger at defeat in war (Ezek. 6:11; cf. 21:14, 17; 25:6; Lam. 2:15, derision; 2 Sam. 22:43; Dan. 7:7, 19). The three judgments, sword, famine, and pestilence, are divided between those far off, nearby, and any who are left (6:12). Obviously, this includes everybody.

The desolation will extend from the southern wilderness (around Beersheba?) to Riblah, near the northern border of modern Lebanon (Aharoni: no. 159). An alternate text reads "Diblah" (NIV); the two cities were identified as the same by the ancient rabbis (Greenberg, 1983:187).

The Text in Biblical Context

The First Commandment

The word idol first occurs in the book of Ezekiel in chapter 6. While Ezekiel's first general indictment is that Israel has rejected the Lord's statutes (5:6-7), his first specific indictment is disloyalty, violation of the first and second commandments (these two are one in Jewish reckoning). All the great prophets condemn Israel for breaking these two commandments (cf. Amos 5:25-26; Hos. 2; Isa. 2; Jer. 2; etc.). Love and loyalty to God are the foundation of biblical law (cf. Deut. 6:4-8). To reject the Lord is therefore to reject the Lord's way.

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Ezekiel charges that Israel is practicing idolatry not merely among the exiles but also in the temple at Jerusalem (8:10). It is a practice both of people and leaders. Idolatry divides the heart of the elders, so that they come to hear Ezekiel with no intention of doing what he might say (14:7). This is characteristic not only of Ezekiel's generation but of every generation, beginning with the one in Egypt (20:78). In the wilderness, the Israelites set their eyes upon their ancestor's idols (20:24). This idolatrous worship sometimes included sacrifice of their own children (23:39).

To understand Ezekiel's critique in chapter 6, one must penetrate more deeply than an understanding of the archaeology of worship: high places, altars, incense stands, idols. The idolatrous Baal gods were power gods; their worship centered upon concern for survival. Israel thought that these territorial gods would help fend off Nebuchadnezzar. Yahwistic worship, on the other hand, centers upon concern for covenant justice, covenant morality and law, as stated already in Ezekiel's first indictment (5:5-6). For Ezekiel, worship and obedience to this covenant God are the only way to security and prosperity.

The issue, applied to economics, is summed up many years later by Jesus, "But strive first for the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well" (Matt. 6:33). Ezekiel applied this principle not merely to individuals but to Israel, to community security. According to him, security is found not with the power gods, whether economic or political, whether those of Canaan or of Nebuchadnezzar. Worship of the power gods only exposes one to the wrath of the emphatic first person singular Pronoun (6:3). This Pronoun (I, I myself, the Lord) represents righteousness and justice; this Pronoun controls history.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Idolatry and Three Monotheistic Faiths

The three historic monotheistic faiths, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, are heirs of the OT polemic against idolatry. In the Talmud, an early first millennium collection of Jewish law and tradition, the rabbis consider incest, murder, and idolatry as the three cardinal sins. For these, the faithful must suffer martyrdom rather than to transgress. The rabbis said, "He who denies idols is called a Jew," and "He who recognizes idols denies the whole Torah" (EJ, 8:1227-1238).

In Islam's holy book, the Koran, Abraham is the prototype of

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monotheism; he smashed the idols of his countrymen. For Muslims, idolatry is an insult to God because it likens creation to the Creator. This emphasis suppressed all mediation between God and the faithful.

Justin Martyr was the earliest of the church fathers to write against idolatry. These early fathers believed that idols were fragments of creation and were not to be worshiped in place of the Creator. Tertullian saw idolatry as the worst of all sins, encompassing all others. When the Germanic tribes invaded Rome (A.D. 410), pagan Romans accused Christians of having destroyed the worship of the city's gods, the city's protectors. These pagans viewed their gods as nationalistic power gods, much as did ancient Near Easterners in the time of Ezekiel. Augustine answered their criticism in his City of God, the last great apologetic work against ancient paganism (ER, 7:72-81).

But the triumph of monotheism is incomplete. Monotheism includes purity of heart, a heart undivided between God and wealth (Matt. 6:24). This means having a heart that is not divided between the security gods of military power and the God of our Lord Jesus Christ.

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The Grand Finale:

Day of the Lord:

Ezekiel 7:1-27

Preview

Ezekiel addresses his trilogy of sermons first to Jerusalem on its lost vocation to the nations (5:5-7), then to the mountains on their idolatry (6:3-7), and last to the whole land on its violated social ethics (7:2, 10-22). The Jerusalem address is joined to the three pantomimes (4:1-4); the sermons to mountains and land follow independently.

The trilogy terminates with two allied images, the end and the day of the Lord. These images were not coined by Ezekiel but already appear in the oldest prophetic book, Amos (8:1-2; 5:18-20). Although Ezekiel here speaks of Judah's end (587 B.C.), his message has universal overtones which later will develop into the apocalyptic theme, the end of the world.

Although the three proclamations are addressed to Israel's homeland, Ezekiel's immediate audience is the exiles, likely gathered at his house by the river Chebar. A purpose of the trilogy is to emphasize that the way to the future does not lie back there.

Outline

The End: A Pronouncement, 7:1-9

7:1-4

The End Has Come

7:5-9

The Day Is Near

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The Day: Detailing the Judgments, 7:10-22

7:10-13

Judgment upon Violence and Economic Injustice

7:14-16

Judgment upon Armaments

7:17-22

Judgment upon Hoarded Wealth

The Grand Finale, 7:23-27

Explanatory Notes

Made up of a number of separate oracles, chapter 7 as edited forms a loose literary unity. It begins with a revelation formula (7:1) and ends with a recognition formula (7:27b). [Revelation Formula, p. 381. Recognition Formula, p. 380.] Key words and phrases of the chapter: the end (7:2ab, 3, 6ab), the time (7:7, 12; Greek: kairos, LXX, 7:4, 12), the day (7:7, 10, 12), the day of the wrath of the Lord (7:19).

The End: A Pronouncement 7:1-9

Both of these oracles are introduced with a messenger formula and close with a recognition formula (7:2b, 3a; 4b, 9b). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

7:1-4 The End Has Come

The address is to the land of Israel (7:2) and every inhabitant of the land (7:7). Though important to the biblical story, land is never immediately related to Israel, as in the pagan relationship of "blood and soil." Land is a promise, rooted in the relationship of God and people (cf. Gen. 12:1). Because Israel has broken this relationship, Ezekiel proclaims an end to the land. The four corners of the land is a Hebrew idiom meaning the entire land (7:2). Its last word may be translated either land or earth, depending upon context (cf. Isa. 11:12 and TBC below).

Amos is the first prophet to proclaim the end of Israel (Amos 8:13). Previously, prophets threatened temporary judgments, which are lifted after Israel's repentance (cf. Judg. 2:11-23; 2 Kings 17:7-20).

The Lord's judgment against Israel is expressed in three different ways. The first way: I will let loose my anger upon you (7:3). This may be translated, I will send forth. . . . Here anger is personified, sent forth as the Lord's messenger to mediate judgment upon the land. The second way is expressed as the Lord's immediate action: I will

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judge you. God personally executes judgment. The third way, not apparent in most translations, is clarified by the NEB: I will . . . bring your abominations upon your own heads (7:3). Here the land, by its abominations, sets in motion an evil which the Lord turns back like a boomerang upon it. The judgment is impersonal, though guided by the Lord.

There are three recognition formulas in this chapter (7:4, 9, 27). The point is not that mere judgment will cause the land to acknowledge the Lord. Rather, judgment as fulfillment of the prophetic word will cause the land to acknowledge that the Lord, represented by the prophet, controls the future. The claim is that though the prophet's word appears marginal to history, it is central.

7:5-9 The Day Is Near

This second oracle is much like the first. As originally indicated by Amos, the people celebrated the day of the Lord as a day of light (Amos 5:18-20). So here, the people celebrate it as a day of victory, of reveling on the mountains (Ezek. 7:7). But just as Amos saw it as a day of darkness, so Ezekiel sees it as a day of tumult (panic, NIV).

The Day: Detailing the Judgments, 7:10-22

7:10-13 Judgment upon Violence and Economic Injustice

Instead of the day, the ancient Greek version translates, the day of the Lord (hemera * kuriou). While chapter 6 indicts the mountains for their idolatry, this chapter indicts the land for its social evils: injustice, pride, violence. The verbal images are taken from plant life: blossomed, budded, grown (7:10-11). [Economic Justice, p. 377.]

Rod as used here may refer to a scepter, a symbol of rule (7:10; cf. Jer. 48:17). It is parallel to pride, arrogance which then becomes oppressive: violence has grown into a rod of wickedness (Ezek. 7:11; cf. Isa. 10:24; 14:5). The meaning of the Hebrew in 7:11 is uncertain (NRSV note). JB omits it.

The language, The time has come, the day draws near (7:12), compares to that of John the Baptist and Jesus: "The kingdom of heaven has come near" (Matt. 3:2; 4:17). Here it announces judgment. The buyer and seller refer to persons transacting an exchange of real estate because of debt upon the property (Lev. 25:25-28). The sellers shall not return to what has been sold as long as they remain

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alive (7:13). This may mean that there will be no redemption of property because of the collapse of religious and economic structures.

7:14-16 Judgment upon Armaments

By blowing the horn, Israel calls up the militia and makes ready for battle (7:14; cf. Judg. 3:27). But the result is paralysis. To fight is futile, for it is to fight against the Lord's wrath. The sword of the enemy is outside the city wall; pestilence and famine are inside (Ezek. 7:15). The survivors will run for the mountains, moaning over their iniquity (7:16; cf. 6:8).

Exhausted, hands used for war hang feeble (7:17). Verse 17b should be translated, Their knees run with urine (NEB). That is, fear overtakes the warriors, and they lose control of bodily functions. Dressing in sackcloth and shaving the head (baldness, 7:18) are symbolic expressions of mourning (2 Sam. 3:31; Isa. 3:24).

7:17-22 Judgment upon Hoarded Wealth

In the ancient world, silver and gold were often hoarded. Except for land, there was not much opportunity for capital investment. But what the people hoarded for their "rainy day," they now throw away as unclean (7:19). The word used here is often used of women's menstruation (cf. 18:6; Lev. 15:16-24, uncleanness of both men's and women's emissions).

Why this devaluation of gold and silver? It was the stumbling block of their iniquity (7:19)an expression used only by Ezekiel, and always of idolatry (14:3-4, 7; 44:12). They value gold and silver above their covenant God and covenant brothers and sisters, hoarding it instead of using it for the common good. But it is a misplaced trust, for silver and gold cannot save them on the day of the Lord's wrath. In the famine from siege and war, they cannot fill their stomachs with it. The word deliver is often used of the Lord's deliverance from a foreign enemy (7:19, RSV; Exod. 18:9-10).

Some regard the beautiful ornament (Ezek. 7:20) as a reference to the temple, but it probably refers to jewelry (see NIV). From this, Israel made their abominable images or idols (see Exod. 32:1-6). My treasured (secret) place (7:22) refers to the temple treasury, one of the first places that a foreign conqueror would plunder (cf. 2 Kings 25:13-17).

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The Grand Finale 7:23-27

Make a chain (7:23) may refer to preparation for their own captivity. Ezekiel sums up Judah's guilt by the use of priestly language, similar to the language of the Flood story: "The earth was filled with violence" (Gen. 6:11; cf. Ezek. 14:12-20; Matt. 24:38). Bloody crimes might better be translated crimes of [miscarried] justice, judiciary crimes (cf. 7:10). [Economic Justice, p. 377.]

All of Judah's officials fail. The vision from the prophet (7:26) was meant to give direction for corporate decision in the present moment. Instruction (Heb.: torah) is the fundamental story and precept upon which such prophetic decision is to be made. The purpose of counsel or wisdom from the elders is to point the way to the good life. The king and the prince (7:27) may be a poetic parallel for the same person. In any case, they refer to the administrative official who because of lack of direction is unable to function in response to bad news.

The people of the land are propertied citizens whose hands can only tremble. According to their way, as they had murdered and oppressed others, so now the Lord will deal with them. Domestic oppressions and violence will be checked by foreign oppression and violence.

This enumeration of officials ends with the third recognition formula of the chapter. They shall know who is in charge: not they, but the I am, the Lord.

The Text in Biblical Context

The Day of the Lord

Eschatology is "the doctrine of the last things." It may be defined absolutely as referring to the ultimate destiny of humanity. Or it may be defined relatively as referring to the end of a period in human history (or of a people), which is then followed by an entirely different historical period (cf. EJ, 6:862).

This "doctrine of the last things" has deep roots in Israel's history. It begins with the divine choice of a particular people to lead the world in the universal rule of God (cf. Gen. 12:1-3). At the end comes the portrayal of a "new heaven and a new earth," a "new Jerusalem'' coming down from God out of heaven, God's dwelling with humanity (Rev. 21:1-4).

Within the trajectory of these polarities lies Ezekiel's prophecy of chapter 7. Ezekiel here brings together two important prophetic emphases: the day of the Lord and the end. This day and end is a time of

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God's judgment, especially for social evils: for violence and oppression, for materialismtrust in silver and gold for salvation. Although remnant is mentioned (7:16), there is little in this chapter to suggest a positive outcome, except for the recognition formula. The new age, beyond judgment, Ezekiel leaves for later discussion (chaps. 17; 33-37; 40-48).

These two prophetic emphases, the day of the Lord and the end, begin with Amos. Before Amos, the prophets pronounced judgment against a person (1 Sam. 3:10-14), a king (2 Sam. 12:1-14), a dynasty (1 Kings 21:20-24), or Israel as a whole (Judg. 6:7-10), but they never threatened the end of Israel. The historian's prospect of history was a series of cycles, or rather, a downward spiral: apostasy, judgment, repentance, deliverance (Judg. 2:11-21). The message of Amos, however, was that there will be no more spiraling. Judgment drops off into the abyssTHE END (Amos 8:1-3). The day of the Lord is darkness and not light, with no brightness in it (5:18-20).

After Amos, no prophet sees Israel's history as a simple cycle. The message of the drop into the abyss is never retracted. For Hosea, Israel's history is God's frustration (Hos. 6:4-6). The future must be beyond the abyss, a future due to the mystery of God's compassionthat God is God and not a mere human, the Holy One in Israel (11:9). For Jeremiah, there must be a new covenant, a covenant based upon an anthropological miracle, a new humanity (31:31-34). For Ezekiel, after the end there must be resurrection (chap. 37), a new heart and new spirit (chap. 36), new leadership (17:22-24), and a new structure for communal living (chaps 40-48). Ezekiel takes Amos's emphasis upon the end with all seriousness.

For three other prophets, the day of the Lord is the end not only of Israel, but of the whole earth (Isa. 13:6-16; Zeph. 1:14-18; Obad. 1:15-16). Daniel, an apocalyptic book, portrays the end as the time of God's judgment of the great world powers, and the beginning of the rule of "one like a son of man" (Dan. 7, RSV).

The NT proclaims that the Jesus event initiated the last days foretold by the prophets (Acts 2:17-21). The new creation is a present reality (1 Cor. 10:11; 2 Cor. 5:17). But beside this emphasis on the "now," there is also an emphasis on the "not yet": "the day of the Lord" becomes "the day of the Lord Jesus,'' when Christ will return (1 Cor. 1:8; 2 Cor. 1:14; Phil. 1:6; 2 Pet. 3:10; cf. Elias on 1 Thess. 5:2; 2 Thess. 2:1-2).

No NT writings see this "now" and "not yet" as totally exclusive; they are held in tension (IDB, Suppl.: 139). The entire creation is

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presently groaning with birth pangs; and we, having already the first fruits of the Spirit, groan with it "while we wait for adoption, the redemption of our bodies" (Rom. 8:23).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Noah's Arkthe Sequel

This title heads an article in Time magazine (Sept. 24, 1990) telling of Biosphere II, a $60-million experiment of a self-contained ecosystem, built north of Tucson on the desert. It tells how eight people from the U.S., West Germany, Britain, and Belgium would be sealed in it for two yearsa physician, botanist, marine biologist, and experts on engineering and agriculture. From the outside, they were to get nothing but information, sunshine, and electricity. The experiment had two objectives: to test ideas for a space colony, and to learn how the earth "sustains itself through the recycling of water, air, and nutrients."

This experiment has since been completed, though somewhat imperfectly. Time's comparing the biosphere with Noah's ark, however, does not include the main emphasis of the Noah story, the spiritual and moral dimension. The point of Noah's ark was to save the world from the wickedness and violence of the previous age (Gen. 6:11; cf. Ezek. 7:23), and to start a new era with a new dispensation of God's grace (Gen. 8:209:17).

The church is certainly interested in the earth's biosphere; hopefully some of the participants in Biosphere II may be Christians. But may a crime be committed even within Biosphere II? What Time's story lacks in its analogy with Noah's ark is precisely the point to which Ezekiel speaks in chapter 7. He speaks to the land, the earth (7:2); his message is that the land is full of judicial crimes and violence (7:23). Injustice has blossomed, arrogance has budded, violence has grown up into oppression (7:10-11). Wealth is hoarded by the rich (7:11), and the weak die.

Will our earth's biosphere have survivors (7:16)? Will it have moral guidance (7:26)? (Cf. "Star Wars and Millennial Preachers" in TLC for chaps. 38-39; "The Millennium in the Hope of the Church" in TLC for 40:144:3).

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Temple Vision:

The Exit of God:

Ezekiel 8:111:25

Preview

As the sentinel's first blast of a trumpet, Ezekiel visualizes for the exiles the Lord's threat against Jerusalem by acting out a pantomime (see OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). After three sermonsone against Jerusalem (5:5-17), one against the mountains (6:1-14), and one against the land (7:1-27)Ezekiel again dramatizes his message for the exiles; in this episode he portrays a vision (8:1; 11:25). The photoplay exposes the conspiracies in the temple. It objectifies the reason for the Lord's threat against the city.

This vision is like a detective story with many disparate leads but whose thread of unity becomes apparent at the final exposé. Thus the vision is made up of a number of dissimilar parts whose unity becomes apparent only as one discerns the intent of the entire piece. Though these dissimilar parts are often explained as later additions, the segment in its present form is an intentional unity. Each of its five disparate elements contributes to the oneness of the whole:

1. The inquiry by the elders, surrounding the vision like an envelope (8:1; 11:24-25), supplies the stimulus to which the vision is a response. [Inclusio, p. 379.]

2. The recurrent chariot visionsurfacing in 8:2, 4; 9:3; 10:1-8, 9-22; 11:22-23knits the segment together, especially its two contradictory parts (8:110:8 and 11:1-25). Appearing in all three extended visions of the book (1:13:15; 8:111:25; 40:148:35; cf. 43:1-9), the Glory adds a transcendent dimension to these chapters.

3. The temple tour (8:3, 7, 14, 16; 11:1) provides for the elders

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the Lord's visual indictment of Jerusalem's leadership, clarifying why the exiles' immediate future cannot lie back there.

4. The three proverbs, the first stated twice (8:12; 9:9; 11:3, 15), provide the foci to which the vision speaks. These Jerusalem proverbs were likely reported to the exiled elders. Perhaps the elders brought them to the prophet, providing the occasion for this inquiry.

5. The eschatalogical prophecy (11:14-21) reassures the elders that though the immediate word for Jerusalem is judgment, the Lord's own person will be a sanctuary for the exiles. God will finally return them to their homeland as a renewed community (TBC below).

Outline

Elders' Inquiry; Ezekiel Visits Jerusalem in a Vision, 8:1-4

The Lord's Response to Judah's Proverb, 8:510:8

8:5-18 Four AbominationsPlus! "The Lord Does Not See!"

First Abomination

8:5-6

Second Abomination

8:7-13

Third and Fourth Abominations

8:14-16

Worse Than All Abominations: Violence

8:17-18

9:110:8 Jerusalem Burns: "The Lord Has Forsaken the Land!"

The Slaughter

9:1-11

The City Burns

10:1-8

The Chariot Vision, 10:9-22

The Lord's Response to Judah's Proverbs, 11:1-21

11:1-13 Plotters at East Gate: "The City, the Pot; We, the Meat!"

11:14-21 Citizens of Jerusalem: "To Us This Land Is Given!"

The Glory Abandons Temple; Ezekiel Returns to Exiles, 11:22-25

Explanatory Notes

Elders' Inquiry; Ezekiel Visits Jerusalem in a Vision 8:1-4

The sixth year, . . . sixth month, . . . fifth day, (8:10) is only one year and two months later than the previous date (1:1-2). [Chronology, p. 377.] This does not allow Ezekiel enough time to complete his

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predicted siege of Jerusalem: nearly one year, two and one-half months (4:4-6; 430 days); also, another week is designated before this siege begins (3:16). There are several possible solutions. Is the ancient Greek translation correct which has Ezekiel lying on his side several months less than a year (230 days)? Are these dates to be taken with exact seriousness? Or did this vision interrupt Ezekiel's siege of chapter 4 (cf. Greenberg 1983:166)?

However explained, this overlap of dates may be an additional clue to the editorial unity of this material: from pantomime of judgment (4:15:4) to vision, portraying the reason for judgment (8:5-18); from chariot vision of God's advent among the exiles in Babylon (1:4-28), to chariot vision explaining God's judgment upon and exit from the city (9:110:5; 11:22-23).

On this date, Ezekiel reports that the hand of the Lord God fell upon him (8:1; cf. 1:3; 3:14, 22; 33:22; 37:1; 40:1). The verb fell is used of this experience only here, likely marking its suddenness (cf. 11:5). Ezekiel travels to Jerusalem in visions of God (8:3); he remains bodily in his house by the river Chebar. For Ezekiel's house meetings with the elders, see TBC below.

The description of God, whom Ezekiel here seesas well as other itemsare repeated from his call vision (8:2; cf. 1:26). The prophet is propelled on his visionary journey by two powers, the form of a hand, here associated with the person of God (8:3; cf. 1:8), and the spirit (cf. 1:26; 3:12, 14). Only the spirit emerges again as Ezekiel's locomotion in this vision (11:1, 24). The Glory (8:4), whose brightness Ezekiel describes at the beginning of his vision while yet in Babylon (8:2), here reappears when Ezekiel arrives at the temple in Jerusalem (cf. 1:28; Isa. 6:3). Associated with brightness, fire, and the rainbow, the movements of the glory are central to this temple tour (9:3; 10:4, 18-19; 11:22-23; cf. 1:28; 43:2-5). [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.]

The Lord's Response to Judah's Proverb 8:510:7

The visual indictments of 8:5-18 and the graphic judgment portrayal of 9:1-11 are the Lord's responses to the first proverb about the Jerusalem elders and people (8:12; 9:9).

8:5-18 Four AbominationsPlus! "The Lord Does Not See"

Although the topography is not entirely clear, Ezekiel's temple tour has four stages as stated in this text. (1) It begins at the entrance

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of the gateway of the inner court that faces north (8:3, 5). [Charts on Ezekiel's Temple, 386.] (2) Presumably it then proceeds through the 85-foot gateway to the entrance of the inner court, by which a large secret room is located (8:7; cf. 46:3). [Plan of the Temple Gates, p. 394.] (3) The tour then returns to the entrance of the north gate of the temple, likely the approach to the inner court (8:14). (4) It then proceeds into the inner court to the entrance of the temple proper, between temple porch and the altar (8:16). As Tour Leader, God gives directions and explains the scenes encountered along the way: And God [Heb.: he] said to me (8:5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 17).

First Abomination 8:5-6

For the entrance north of the altar gate (8:5; cf. 8:3), see the essay on the temple. [Charts of Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] The Hebrew word translated north is also used of Baal's mountain, located to the north on the Mediterranean coast. This, in conjunction with the feminine Hebrew noun translated jealousy, may signal that the image was of the Canaanite goddess, Asherah. In the Bible, Asherah is the consort of the god Baal (cf. 1 Kings 18:19). Centuries earlier, the Baal Epic presented Asherah as the consort of the god El, head of the Canaanite pantheon (ANET: 129ff.).

The worship of Asherah, a fertility goddess, tempted Israel and Judah throughout their history. Manasseh placed its graven image in the temple (2 Kings 21:1-9), and it may be this act to which Ezekiel here refers. Though the image was removed, burned, and beaten to dust in Josiah's reform (2 Kings 23:6), Jeremiah afterward indicted Judah for worshiping the "Asherim" or "sacred poles" (Jer. 17:2, NRSV note). This image of jealousy (8:5; cf. 8:3) is placed at the north gate, perhaps to welcome the Lord's worshipers. The title may refer to the first commandment (Exod. 20:5; cf. Ezek. 5:13).

The word abomination (8:6) designates that which is ritually and ethically loathsome or "abhorrent" to the Lord; here it is used of idolatry, as often elsewhere (cf. Deut. 7:25-26; 13:13-15; 17:4). By such acts, Israel drives the Lord from the sanctuary. The literary movement is an accelerating one, advancing the vision toward its climax: You will see still greater abominations (8:6b, 13, 15b, 17; cf. Ps. 78:17, 32, 56). By these successive scenes, Ezekiel may be depicting Israel's abominations throughout its history.

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Second Abomination 8:7-13

Ezekiel's movements throughout the tour are charted in 8:3, 7, 14, 16. [Charts of Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] The advance from 8:3 to 8:7, the entrance to the court, is not entirely clear; but he is moving southward through the north gate.

Digging through the wall (8:8) is difficult to visualize, but the main point is that this worship is practiced secretly. The creeping things and loathsome animals portrayed upon the wall (8:10), objects of ancient Egyptian piety, are likely worshiped by a Judean political party promoting covert cooperation with Egypt, against Babylon. The term seventy of the elders (8:11; cf. Exod. 24:1, 9; Num. 11:16) shows that this is "official worship," involving ruling elders of Jerusalem.

Jaazaniah is a member of an important Jerusalem family, that of Shaphan (8:11; cf. 2 Kings 22:3-14; 25:22; Jer. 26:24; 29:3; 36:1012). The seventy elders stood before them, meaning before the idols, ministering to their "bodily needs." Earlier, Elijah also stood before the Lord, whom he served (1 Kings 17:1). The Hebrew word translated images (8:12) occurs in Leviticus 26:1 and Numbers 33:52, again in connection with idols. Besides their common worship setting, each elder has his private room.

How does Ezekiel know of the Jerusalem proverb, The Lord does not see (8:12b; cf. 9:9; 11:3, 15)? Perhaps these proverbs were reported to the exiles by an emissary from Jerusalem, and this then occasioned the elders' inquiry in Ezekiel's house (8:1). Throughout this chapter, the vision speaks to the first proverb. The word see occurs eleven times in relation to this idolatry (Heb.: ra'ah, looked, see, seen: 8:6ae, 7, 9, 10, 12be, 13, 15bc, 17). Contrary to the proverb, the Lord not only sees; the Lord exposes Jerusalem's actions to Ezekiel and the exiles, threatening to abandon Judah in future judgment.

Third and Fourth Abominations 8:14-16

The third abomination is the worship of Tammuz (8:14), an ancient Babylonian divinity who, according to mythology, died and went to the underworld at the end of spring, when life on earth languished. His female consort rescued him at the end of the dry season, when life on earth returned. The weeping of the women was a rite celebrated at the end of spring to counteract the loss of the power of the god and the waning of nature (cf. ANET: 84, 102, 492). This ritual mourning, censured by the prophets (cf. Judg. 11:38-39; Zech.

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12:11; Hos. 7:14), illustrates how Jerusalem's political subjection to Babylon is affecting temple worship.

The fourth abomination happens between the temple porch and the altar, an especially holy place of the inner court (8:16; cf. Joel 2:17). [Charts of Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] Instead of twenty-five men (8:16), the ancient Greek translation reads, about twenty men. Their position displays their rebellion, their backs to the temple of the Lord. Like neighboring temples, the Lord's sanctuary faces east, toward the rising sun. Yet Israel is to worship facing toward the inner court of the temple; thus at the temple's entrance, they should be facing west. In his reform (622 B.C.), Josiah removed from the temple entrance the horses dedicated to the sun and burned the sun chariots (2 Kings 23:11). "Beit Shemesh," the name of an ancient town west of Jerusalem, may be translated, "temple of the sun." It once had been a center of sun worship, a universal Near Eastern practice. [Worship, p. 389.]

Worse Than All Abominations: Violence 8:17-18

When the Lord's worship is rejected, pagan values take over. The expression fill the land with violence (8:17) is reminiscent of the Flood story (Gen. 6:11; cf. Ezek. 9:9). The way of violence is the capstone of Jerusalem's abominations, to be wiped out by judgment. The branch to their nose is an ancient worship gesture in the cult; its meaning is uncertain.

Though they cry . . . , God will not listen (8:18). The Lord will hear the cry of the oppressed and of the poor (Deut. 15:9). But this is the cry of oppressors, those who commit violence, whether structural or personal. The clause of 9:1, the Lord cried in my hearing, ties this verse (8:18) to the next chapter. [Economic Justice, p. 377.]

9.110:7 Jerusalem Burns:

"The Lord Has Forsaken the Land"

Like the preceding exposure of abominations, this threat of judgment is the Lord's response to Jerusalem's proverb (9:9b; cf. 8:12).

The Slaughter 9:111

The indictment, four scenes of idolatrous worship issuing in social violence, is followed by this threat. The cry of the oppressors (8:18) is here exchanged for the Lord's cry to the executioners (9:1; for other

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divine executions, cf. Exod. 12:23; Isa. 37:36). The six men (9:2) may personify the Lord's wrath, as in Psalm 78:49: "He let loose on them his fierce anger, wrath, indignation, and distress, a company of destroying angels." In Ezekiel, by adding the man . . . with the writing case, the company becomes seven, a complete number, like the days of the week (cf. seven archangels of Rev. 8:2, 6; Greenberg: 175).

The executioners come from the direction of the upper gate, which faces north (8:2). Besides referring to a place, this may be an allusion to Jeremiah's threat, that Israel's foe will come from the north (Jer. 1:14; 4:6; also, Ezek. 26:7; 38:6). From this northerly direction, the executioners go south into the inner court, where they stand beside the bronze altar. This is Solomon's altar, which king Ahaz placed north of his new altar (2 Kings 16:14).

Israelite priests are to be clothed in linen (9:2; Exod. 28:42), as is an angel (Gabriel) in the book of Daniel and the angelic host in Revelation (Dan. 10:5; 12:6-7; Rev. 19:14). This seventh man, a heavenly scribe in linen, with a writing case at his side (9:2, 11; 10:27), compares to the Babylonian scribal god, Nabu, one of seven planetary deities (Greenburg, 1983:175). Such comparisons should be guarded; each such item must be oriented within the total context of its respective culture and faith. No other angelic scribe is mentioned in the Bible, though books are kept (Dan. 7:10; 12:1; Rev. 5; 20:12).

This is the first occurrence of the term cherub in the book of Ezekiel (9:3). These cherubim are later identified with the four living creatures of his first vision (10:20; cf. 1:5). Here the glory had gone up from the cherub (sing.). This may be compared with the ancient Psalm (18:10), where the Lord "rode on a cherub," a being which personified "the wings of the wind." Perhaps the cherub resides with the Glory in the most holy place (1 Kings 6:23-28). Or maybe it conveys the glory of the God of Israel throughout this tour. If the former, this is the first stage of the Glory's abandonment of the temple, from the holy place to the threshold (10:4 repeats this movement, confusing the picture somewhat). From here, the glory goes to the east gate (10:18), then to Olivet (11:23), and presumably on to Chaldea (11:25; Babylon).

The Hebrew word translated mark (9:4) is the letter tav (taw/tau), the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet. It might be literally rendered, Tav a tav. This tav is to be placed upon the foreheads of those who sigh and groan over all the abominations detailed in chapter 8. In Ezekiel's time, before the Jews adopted the Aramaic script, this letter was an x. Early church fathers associated this with the cross of Jesus.

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But we are on better exegetical grounds to associate it with the mark of Cain (Gen. 4:15) or with the Lord's protection of the Israelite households from the destroyer at the exodus (Exod. 12:7-13). From that perspective, one might make a homiletical connection with the cross of Jesus. But Jesus' own homiletical "lesson" for the disciples is not that his cross-bearing is their protection, but that it is their model (Mark 8:34)!

After the scribe passed through Jerusalem marking the foreheads of the righteous, the executioners are ordered to kill (9:5). This holocaust compares to the following: the ban (herem *) placed upon Israel when Achan stole the booty after the battle of Jericho (Josh. 7:10-26); Elijah's slaying the Baal prophets near Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:40); and the death of Ananias and Sapphira at Jerusalem (Acts 5:1-11). Such discipline is directly related to the ban of the Lord's war in Joshua 7:10-12: when Israel steals from the war-ban ("devoted things"), Israel itself is banned. As in these earlier wars, here the executioners' act does not meet Augustine's requirements for a "just war," for all who do not have the mark are to be killed: old men, young men and young women, little children and women (9:6). In the Joshua war narrative, animals are included: he "utterly destroyed all that breathed" (10:40). From the modern point of view, such acts are offensive both to just-war advocates and to pacifistsand are contrary even to U.S. military law!

But another development of the Lord's war is demonstrated by these divine executioners: because the Lord fights, faith in God comes to mean that Israel does not fight (cf. Exod. 14:13-14; Isa. 7:4-9). Israel was not to prepare for war either by adopting a military structure (kingship), by arming itself with the latest weapons, or by entering into military treaties (cf. Ezek. 23). As did Peter with Ananias and Sapphira, the faithful are to "leave room for the wrath of God" (Rom. 12:19). The expression of this wrath is not an event which the faithful celebrate, but which, like Ezekiel, they oppose by intercession (cf. 11:13; Gen. 18:22-33).

Though historically the sanctuary was to be a haven for those threatened (1 Kings 2:28-35), the executioners are to begin here; they do so with the elders (9:6; cf. 8:16; 1 Pet. 4:17). A corpse, even that of a king, will defile the temple (9:7; cf. 43:7).

Perhaps Ezekiel's statement, I was left alone (9:8), means that he is the only one with God's mark upon his forehead. Yet the total scene seems to imply that even in Jerusalem, there is left a remnant of the faithful (cf. 1 Kings 19:10, 18).

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Only twice in this book does Ezekiel intervene to do the prophetic work of intercessor, both times in this vision (9:8; 11:13). Besides being a messenger of the Lord, the prophet is to intercede for the people, a task recognized already in the Abraham narratives (Gen. 20:7; cf. Exod. 32:32; Ps. 106:23). Jeremiah is not allowed to make this intercession (Jer. 14:11-13; 15:1; cf. Amos 7:2, 5). Perhaps Ezekiel does so little of it because of the rebellious spirit of the people. Human intercession and divine intervention are to result in authentic piety and justice (cf. Ezek. 14:12-23).

Ezekiel 9 is rounded off by its only indictment: The land is full of bloodshed (murder) and the city is full of injustice (9:9, NIV), a repetition of the climactic indictment of 8:17. The impiety of idolatrous worship culminates in a lawless communal life. The Lord's indictment includes the proverb quoted by the Jerusalemites, The Lord has forsaken the land (cf. 8:12). Here 9:9 forms an inclusio with 8:12, though the phrases are in a chiastic arrangement: the proverbs exchange the order of their phrases, the first becoming last, and the last coming first. [Inclusio, p. 379.] For these Jerusalemites, God is irrelevant.

The eye of God does see (9:10). While the nature of the Lord's eye is to spare, to have pity (cf. 5:11; 7:4, 9; 8:18; 9:5), there is little hope that Jerusalem will change its course. Judgment here is not so much God's personal act of retribution; instead, God causes the evil which Jerusalem has committed to boomerang upon its own head: I will bring down their deeds upon their own heads (9:10).

The City Burns 10:1-8

The Lord's chariot again appears, this time integrated into the scene of the city's judgment. The throne upon the sky-dome (10:1) suggests a Universal Ruler. The Lord's judgment of Jerusalem involves the nations because of its vocation in the center of the nations (5:5-6).

Burning coals . . . among the cherubim (10:2) recalls 1:13. Burning coals from the altar purged Isaiah's lips, making possible his ministry (Isa. 6:6). Here the coals threaten Jerusalem because the city has rejected its ministry, assigned by the Lord (notes on 5:5).

The glory of the Lord now went up from the cherub to the threshold of the temple (10:4; cf. 8:4). There is some confusion about the movement of the glory at this point (cf. 9:3).

Commanded to take fire from within the wheelwork (10:6), the

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man clothed in linen, contrary to his previous obedience (9:11), merely stands beside a wheel. Is the place too holy for him to enter? Instead, a cherub (10:7) takes some of the fire and puts it into his hands. The text never says that the city burns; that is only implied (cf. 10:2). Perhaps the event is too awful for Ezekiel to state. The narrative ends with a focus upon the throne chariot.

The Chariot Vision 10:9-22

Largely a repeat of chapter 1, this lengthy description of the chariot is inserted between two narrativesbetween the one focusing upon the first repeated proverb (8:19:9; cf. 8:12; 9:9) and the other one focusing upon the second and third proverbs (11:1-25; cf. 11:3, 15). Usually this insertion is regarded as an intrusion placed here by an insensitive editor. The emphasis on the throne chariot, however, has an important function in the total vision, with which it is interwoven. The attention of the elders who have come to inquire of Ezekiel would ordinarily be riveted upon Jerusalem's wickedness and destruction. Thus the stress upon the throne chariot is meant to divert their attention to the Lord's universal rule. The destruction of the city is to be seen within the context of the Lord's rule of the nations and of Israel's vocation at the center of the nations (5:5-6). Ezekiel thus warns the elders to disassociate themselves from Jerusalem's course and to align themselves with the Lord's universal purpose.

This description has a few variations from chapter 1: the eyes (10:12) fill not only the rims (1:18) but also their entire body, . . . , spokes, . . . wings, and wheels; the first face is like that of a cherub (10:14) instead of a human being, replacing entirely that of the ox (1:10); the four living creatures are identified as those seen by the river Chebar, now recognized as cherubim (10:20). These creatures overshadowed the ark in the most holy place of Solomon's temple (1 Kings 8:6) and were portrayed upon the panels of the temple (cf. Ezek. 41:15-20).

The glory of the Lord went out from the threshold . . . and stopped above the cherubim (10:18), presumably still on the south side of the temple (10:3). From there the chariot moved, stopping at the east gate of the temple (10:19). That gate was part of the eastern city wall, above the Kidron valley. The Glory thus departs from the temple by degrees: from the most holy place to the threshold (9:3), from the threshold to the cherubim on the temple's south side (10:3), and from there to the east gate of the temple and city (10:19). [Charts

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of Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] Both at threshold and at gate, the glory tarries, reluctant to abandon the city. [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.]

The Lord's Response to Judah's Proverbs 11:1-21

11:1-13 Plotters at East Gate: ''City, the Pot; We, the Meat"

Has Ezekiel been left standing in the inner court, before the entrance of the temple (8:16)? Caught up by the Spirit, he overtakes the chariot at the east gate (11:1; cf. 10:18-19). Here he sees twenty-five men, the same number as that of the sun worshipers between threshold and altar (8:16).

Though with the same name, Jaazaniah (11:1) has a different ancestry and office from the person of 8:11. The name Pelatiah appears elsewhere (1 Chron. 3:21; Neh. 10:22). These three are the only persons named in the vision; presumably they are better known than the rest. In ancient Israel, the city gate was the place where official business was transacted and counsel dispensed (11:2). The text does not explain the reasoning of the proverb, which encapsules the counsel of the twenty-five men: The time is not near to build houses (11:3). Perhaps they mean that first they must build fortifications. Yet they should have plenty of houses because the exiles have been removed from the land (11:15; cf. 2 Kings 24:14-16).

In the second half of the proverb, the elders evidently interpret the city as the pot which provides security to the meat, its citizens (10:3). The Lord reinterprets the proverb: This city is the pot, and those whom the leaders have slain . . . are the meatthe city is a pot of death (11:7). Instead of being protected by its fortifications, citizens shall be taken out of it. The Lord will bring upon them the sword which they feared and so often had used against their own people (11:8; cf. Matt. 23:34-37; 26:4-5).

The two recognition formulas of this vision occur here: You shall know . . . (11:10, 12). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] The first statement of the formula is connected with Jerusalem's ineffective proverb: This city shall not be their pot (11:11); they will not be protected there (cf. 11:3b), nor will they die there (cf. 11:7). Instead, the Lord will judge them at the border of Israel (11:11). Later, at Riblah, near Israel's northern border, Nebuchadnezzar would put to death many of Jerusalem's ruling class (2 Kings 25:18-21).

The second statement of the formula is joined with that of Jerusalem's disobedience (11:12). Direction for Jerusalem's effective security comes not from the proverb of the twenty-five men counsel-

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ing reliance upon Jerusalem's fortifications (cf. 11:2-3); instead, it comes from the Lord's spiritual and moral guidance (statutes and ordinances). But Israel rejects this radical vocation by acting according to the ordinances of the nations (11:12; cf. 5:6-7).

Pelatiah . . . died (11:13; cf. 11:1; Jer. 28:17; Acts 5:1-11). Although this leader is among those who gave evil counsel to the city, Ezekiel does not celebrate his death but intervenes by intercession. This is his second intervention in this vision (cf. 9:8).

11:14-21 Citizens of Jerusalem: "To Us This Land Is Given!"

The translation, your fellow exiles (11:15), follows the Greek text. Your own kin may be rendered, your own redemption responsibility (Heb.: ge'ullah), which indicates Ezekiel's obligation to the exiles. He is to act as go'el (redeemer) responsible for the redemption of their land (Lev. 25:29-32, 48; Ruth 4:6-7; cf. Campbell: 147). Ezekiel has a responsibility to protect and redeem the land of his fellow exiles. But the inhabitants of Jerusalem do not honor Ezekiel's role of redeemer; instead, they confiscate the property left by the exiles and claim, To us this land is given! They count the exiles as sinners, judged by God, and therefore disinherited: They have gone far from the Lord (11:15).

Ezekiel answers their proverb with the Lord's oracle. Far from deserting the exiles, the Lord has gone with them to the foreign land, has become their sanctuary, their haven of refuge (11:16; cf. 1 Kings 2:28-29). Furthermore, the exiles have no need for the social institution of redemption, for God will be their redeemer: I will gather . . . and assemble you, . . . and I will give you the land (11:17; cf. Exod. 6:6; 15:13). The future belongs not to the Jerusalemites who confiscate the land, but to the exiles whom the Lord has removed from it! This prophecy is the climax of the Lord's answers to Jerusalem's three proverbs, proverbs which the exiled elders have likely brought to Ezekiel's house, where they enquire of the prophet (cf. 8:1).

But the exiles' return home will be no mere continuity with the past: they will remove all the land's abominations (11:18). This is the answer to Jerusalem's idolatries detailed in 8:5-17, signaling again the present unity of this vision.

Ezekiel portrays not simply a restoration in the land, but a new beginning, a new community: I will give them one heart (a new heart, NRSV note), . . . a new spirit; I will remove the heart of stone . . . and give them a heart of flesh (see discussion of 36:22-32). While God's

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work is individuated, directed at each one, it does not result in individualism: they shall be my people, and I will be their God (11:20). Nor does the new spirit mean that Israel will have no need for legal guidance. With a renewed inner life, they will keep the Lord's statutes and ordinances. They still must know the way in which to walk (cf. Gen. 18:17-19).

The Glory Abandons the Temple; Ezekiel Returns to Exiles 11:22-25

The Lord's glory abandons the temple by stages: from the holy place to the threshold (9:3), from the threshold to the east gate (10:18-19), from the east gate to Olivet, the mountain east of the city (11:23). [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.] Here again, Ezekiel does not ride in the chariot (cf. 3:12). In a separate action, the Spirit of God conveys Ezekiel in a vision back to the exiles (11:24). There he answers the elders' inquiry by telling them all the things that the Lord had shown him (cf. 8:1).

The Text in Biblical Context

Ichabod: "The Glory Has Departed"

The five major elements of this vision are its occasion, its chariot scenes, its proverbs, the temple tour, and its statement of the future (cf. PREVIEW). These five elements are united in a complex but unified structure. Together, they convey a varied yet single message to the exiled elders in Babylon.

1. The occasion of the vision is the first of three episodes where the elders come to Ezekiel to consult the Lord about the community's problems (8:1; 14:1; 20:1). In the other two, the Lord refuses to hear their request because they, like Jerusalem, are involved in idolatry (14:3-8; 20:3-31). This first occasion is unique in that it is the only episode where the prophet responds with a positive answer.

An ancient Aramaic Targum paraphrases Ezekiel 11:16: "Therefore I have given them synagogues second only to my holy temple, because they are few in number" (Blenkinsopp: 63). Though a read-back from later times, this paraphrase reflects that Ezekiel and his collaborators were involved in the development of a new institution, the synagogue. Nowhere else in the books of the "writing prophets" do elders or officials meet from time to time in a prophet's house. To meet the needs of exile conditions, however, Ezekiel does not found

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an entirely new institution. Instead, he revives a practice of Israel's earlier prophets (cf. 2 Kings 6:327:2).

What concerns do the elders in Babylon bring to Ezekiel on this first consultation? These can be discerned only by carefully reading the report of the vision.

2. The Glory and the throne chariot which Ezekiel has seen at his call reappear as an interweaving cord throughout this vision, unifying and dominating it. This Glory is of first importance for the elders, so they will know who is in charge of Jerusalem's future, their own future, indeed, the future of the nations. The vision points them to the Lord's universal throne, a throne established upon the sky-dome (10:1). Whatever problems the exiles may have brought to Ezekiel, they are first to be oriented to the rule of their universal Lord, to an Israel in the context of the nations, which exists for the nations (cf. 5:56). [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.]

The meeting which occasioned the vision was drawn from Israel's early story. So also, this theme of an exit of the Glory from the sanctuary did not originate with Ezekiel but was a motif from the account of ancient Shiloh (cf. Jer. 26:6; Ps. 78:67-72). In that drama, a man came running to Eli to tell him that the Philistines had defeated Israel, Israel's troops were slaughtered, Eli's two sons were dead, and the ark of God was capturedafter it had been borrowed from Shiloh to help in battle. Old Eli fell over backwards and died. Hearing the news, Eli's pregnant daughter-in-law, wife of his dead son, was overwhelmed with labor pains and gave birth to a boy. As she died in childbirth, she called the boy's name Ichabod ("Inglorious" or "Where Is the Glory?") and said, "The glory has departed from Israel . ." (1 Sam. 4:12-22). In the narrative of the vision, Ezekiel recasts this Shiloh theme upon his international canvas.

3. The vision's proverbs admit the reader most intimately into the concerns of the exiled elders. These proverbs are Ezekiel's first use of this literary form, a form familiar to his book (cf. 12:22-23; 18:2-3). By use of the people's proverb, Ezekiel gets close to his audience, drawing them into conversation, often redirecting these sayings against their reciters (cf. 12:21-28, TBC and TLC).

The proverbs quoted in the vision were spoken in Jerusalem. These proverbs from Jerusalem have to do with the absence of God and the security of the city as a refuge. They serve to justify Jerusalemites in confiscating land belonging to the exiles. Certainly the exiled elders would be concerned about that!

4. The temple tour is a literary device used in the OT only by

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Ezekiel (8:3b-18; cf. 40:143:12; cf. Rev. 21:9-27). The visionary tour exposes Jerusalem's disloyalty to the Lord, to convince the elders of the inevitability of the city's judgment. The exposure is skillfully developed to focus upon and contradict the proverbs, to show that the Lord does indeed see and will act. If the exiled elders are tempted to join in Zedekiah's upcoming revolt (cf. Jer. 27-28), the broad strokes of Ezekiel's exposure are meant to show that any such policy is directed not against Babylon, but against the Lord.

5. The future promise of this vision (11:17-20) is much like the statement in 36:24-28; some commentators say that a later editor borrowed from that text to insert it here. Whatever its relationship to that context, it is an essential component of Ezekiel's message through the vision to the elders. This prophecy promises that their future does not lie with the community that remains in Jerusalem, but with the exiles. The way to tomorrow is not to revolt against Babylon in order to maintain the old, bankrupt Jerusalem institutions, but to wait upon the Lord's new creation.

That new creation they might enjoy partially even now, as they settle down to participate in the Lord's sanctuary to them for a little while in the foreign countries to which they have gone (11:16). This sanctuary is the Presence (cf. Lev. 19:30; 26:2), which is with them even in their meetings by the rivers of Babylon and in the prophet's house. God has removed them far off among the nations (11:15-16), yet this Presence abandons the temple to go into exile with them, where new institutions are created and established.

The Text in the Life of the Church

The Absence of God

The modern age is sometimes described as the era of the absence of God. Faith for many has lost its meaning. Even for some who remain in the church, worship seems unreal and the biblical world remote and distant.

Sometimes this estrangement is seen positively. Humanity has come of age and no longer needs God. The human race is responsible to make its own decisions, to chart its own course.

The twentieth-century story does not indicate, however, that humanity has achieved an age of responsibility. It is a century of the refugee camp and of displaced peoples. It is a century of the street people, of the broken home, and of violence toward women, children, and the poor.

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It is also a century of idolatries. Idolatry may not be so easily discerned, for to pronounce something as idolatry demands that one must accept a system of values. Bowing down to Asherah's image, to icons of creeping things and beasts, weeping for Tammuz, worshiping "the sun toward the east"these were not regarded as negative acts by most of the people of the ancient Near East. For them, these were acts of genuine worship, the worship of powers which supposedly assured the economic and political order.

Many people of the twentieth century, including some Christians, continue to worship these powers, believing with the ancients that they are the givers of life. Indeed, it is only by commitment to the God whose name is Jealous (Exod. 34:14), that one can discern that the worship of these powers is an abomination.

Ezekiel's perception that these idolatries issue in violence may be relevant to an analysis of the causes of violence in modern life. These abominations with their issue of violence are related to the modern perception of the absence of God and may have driven God from our temples.

If this is so, where may the Presence yet be found? Among the exiled! The church is called to repeat the ministry of Ezekiel among the exilesto refugees, prisoners, battered men, women, and little children. As the church identifies with these marginalized persons, it will emerge as a community in whom God dwells (cf. James 1:27). Menno Simons, a sixteenth-century Anabaptist leader, says it for us: "True evangelical faith cannot lie dormant. It clothes the naked, it comforts the sorrowful, it shelters the homeless, it serves those that harm it, it binds up that which is woundedit has become all things to all people" (Burkholder: 78; Menno: 307).

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The Exile Bundle:

Pantomiming Against Official Policy:

Ezekiel 12:1-20

Preview

An ancient Assyrian relief portrays a line of captives from a town in Egypt (ANEP: no. 10). One captive carries a child; others tote exile bundles hastily prepared for a forced migration. This exile bundle is the central prop of Ezekiel's silent pantomime, his declaration against the official policy of king Zedekiah. It is also the central prop which connects Ezekiel's text with today's newspapers, whether the news is of displaced persons such as the Iraqi Kurds of the Near East, the Afghans of Central Asia, the Rwandans of Central Africa, the Aussiedler of Europe, the native peoples of America after 1492, or the Japanese of United States and Canada during World War II.

Zedekiah is the last king before the exile. [Kings of Judah, p. 380.] He is nowhere mentioned by name, yet Ezekiel the sentinel sounds his trumpet blast against this king's foreign policy in three additional passages: chapters 17, 19, and 21:18-32 (esp. 21:25-27; cf. 3:16-21). It is tempting to deal with these policy critiques as a group but best to examine each text in its respective context.

One may count chapters 4-11 and 12-14 as the first and second portions of part 2 of this book. The two portions are similar in that each begins with a pantomime and ends with Ezekiel meeting with the exiled elders: pantomime of 4:15:4 and meeting of 8:111:25; pantomime of 12:1-20 and meeting of 14:1-23 (OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). In the first portion, Ezekiel prophesies against Jerusalem,

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the mountains, the land, and the temple. In this second portion, Ezekiel castigates Israel's royal and prophetic leaders (12:1-20; 13:1-23) as well as the exilic elders, who apparently are confused by Jerusalem's misguided foreign policy (14:1-23; esp. 14:6-11). Nor does Ezekiel exempt the people. By their self-justifying proverbs, they acquiesce to this misdirected leadership (12:21-28).

Outline

Pantomime Against the King's Policy, 12:1-16

12:1-7 The Pantomime

The Command to Do the Pantomime

12:1-6

Its Performance

12:7

12:8-16 The Pantomime Interpreted

Pantomime of Jerusalem's Doom, 12:17-20

12:17-18 The Pantomime

12:19-20 The Pantomime Interpreted

Explanatory Notes

Pantomime Against the King's Policy 12:1-16

12:1-7 The Pantomime

The prophets were conscious that authority did not emerge from within them, but that it originated from without, over against them, coming to them. Ezekiel's testimony is stated repeatedly in this book by the revelation formula: The word of the Lord came to me (12:1; cf. 3:16; 12:8, 17, 21, 26; etc.). [Revelation Formula, p. 381.] This is quite different from the modern concept of authority arising from one's own psychic depths.

Again, Ezekiel is addressed as a weak mortal (12:2-3, 8-9; cf. 6:1; 7:1; 8:5), who lives in a rebellious house (12:2-3, 8; cf. 2:5-6). Israel's plan to rebel against Babylon is rebellion against the Lord. Though the people have eyes to see and ears to hear the warnings of the prophet, they do neither because of their rebellious spirit.

This rebellious spirit was a common problem for the prophets; Ezekiel's words occur nearly verbatim in Jeremiah 5:21, and the concept appears in the call of Isaiah (6:10; cf. Mark 8:18). Ezekiel's problem of communication is how to deal with an alienated people who do not wish to see that their difficult situation is God's doing. He wants to convince them that their way to the future is not to rebel

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against God's judgment but to cooperate with it. The key word see occurs in this text six times (Ezek. 12:2ab, 3 [NRSV: understand], 6, 12, 13).

To make his people see, Ezekiel is to simulate preparation for a march into exile; today this might be called street theater ("Street Theater" in TLC for 4:15:17). In Babylon, this pantomime will open old wounds of his viewers, for they have suffered this tragedy only a few years previously (597 B.C.). The exile's baggage (or bundle, 12:3, GNB), a well-known item both in the ancient world and today, is depicted in ancient Assyrian art (Jer. 46:19; ANEP, nos. 10, 311, 366; cf. PREVIEW). The main prop of the pantomime, the bundle, is highlighted throughout this action, as English translations indicate (NRSV, 12:3, 4ab, 5, 6).

The baggage is to be prepared by day for the march (12:4), a march which will begin at evening, to escape the heat of the sun. The commands of 12:5-6 suggest that the march will begin with a flight, to be made secretly. Ezekiel is to dig through the wall and to carry out his bundle in the dark. There is thus the progression: day, evening, dark. He is also told, You shall cover your face, probably to symbolize his shame and grief for the land that he will no longer see (cf. 2 Sam. 19:4-5). These verses may refer to king Zedekiah's later flight from Jerusalem (cf. 12:10), his attempt to escape from Nebuchadnezzar's army (2 Kings 25:4-7). Some interpreters see this as an addition made after the event by a disciple of Ezekiel, but this need not be so.

The phrase in their sight occurs six times in the action narrative (12:3bc, 4ab, 5, 6) and once in its interpretation (12:7). It underscores the public character of the pantomime, how its goal is to be achieved.

The purpose of the pantomime is to remedy the problem of this rebellious house: Perhaps they will understand (see, 12:3; cf. notes on 12:2). Here is one of the few indications in the book that Ezekiel's hearers might change their mind and direction (cf. 3:16-21 and notes thereon; 18:1-32; 33:1-20). Though the second revolt will be a disaster like the first, history does not need to repeat itself. Ezekiel may be hoping that this threat of the exiles' bundle, a bundle prepared by the Babylonian exiles themselves a few years previously, might result in a groundswell of opposition to the mood of rebellion in Jerusalem. It is remotely possible that communication of this opposition to Jerusalem, undergirding the message of Jeremiah there, might change the course of that city's leadership. Communication between the two communities about revolt is documented in Jeremiah 29.

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In his vocation as prophet, Ezekiel does not rebel against God as did Israel; instead, he does as commanded (12:7; cf. 2:8). Though this statement (12:7) may seem perfunctory to us, it is not so to Ezekiel. It is dangerous, then and now, to oppose political rebellion.

Here the time sequence is repeated, but somewhat more smoothly. Ezekiel prepares his bundle by day; in the evening he digs through the wall; in the dark he carries the bundle out. That he digs with his own hands, presumably without tools, may suggest that he had little time to prepare.

12:8-16 Pantomime Interpreted

The time sequence continues; the next morning Ezekiel receives an interpretation (12:8). Even this is not Ezekiel's own, but a new revelation given in response to the exiles' question (12:9; cf. Dan. 7:15-16). Ezekiel's pantomime consists of wordless gestures, designed to attract attention and evoke questions.

That the interpretation is not Ezekiel's own is emphasized again by the messenger formula, Thus says the Lord God (12:10). [Messenger Formula, p. 380.] Perhaps this is a special precaution because of the nature of the message, which is the reverse of Jerusalem's political policy. At his court trial, Jeremiah defended himself in a similar way: "It is the Lord who sent me to prophesy against this house and this city" (Jer. 26:12). Ezekiel 12:10 reveals for the first time that this pantomime applies to prince Zedekiah (never named in this book; cf. 2 Kings 24:1725:7; Jer. 39:1-10) and to all the house of Israel in it (Jerusalem).

The word sign (Heb.: mopet) occurs in two passages in Ezekiel (12:6, 11; 24:24, 27); its synonym is used in three others ('ot; 4:3; 14:8; 20:12, 20). The sign is defined by the first two passages: I am a sign for you; as I have done, so it shall be done to them (12:11; cf. 24:24). In this act, Ezekiel himself becomes a symbol, a metaphor of the future. The pronoun changes from second to third person plural. While the message in the first instance is to the exiles (you, pl.), its content refers to what will happen to the king and the Jerusalemites (them, they). If they continue in their present policy, they will go into exile (587 B.C.), just as Ezekiel and his immediate audience have already gone (597 B.C.).

Ezekiel prefers the title prince rather than "king" for Israel's monarch (cf. 19:1). From 12:12 the interpretation focuses upon him because he was ultimately responsible for Judah's misguided policy. Since communications are passing back and forth between Jerusa-

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lem and the exiles, it is possible that the report of the prophet's pantomime might also reach this official (cf. 12:3).

The Hebrew word translated wall (qir, 12:12; cf. 12:5), usually designating the wall of a building, probably does not refer to the Babylonian breach of the city wall (homah *, 2 Kings 25:4; but cf. Num. 35:4, where the city wall is called qir). The Hebrew pronouns should be preserved as in the NIV: The prince . . . will put his things [bundle] on his shoulder . . . and leave, and a hole will be dug in the wall for him to go through. The meaning of the act, cover his face, is here clarified: he may not see the land.

The net, an ancient Near Eastern instrument of war, is the Lord's, not Babylon's (12:13; cf. 17:20; 19:8; Hab. 1:15-17; ANET: 66). For Ezekiel, history is determined not by Mesopotamian armies and their nets, but by the moral God of Sinai (cf. John 18:10-11). The armies of Babylon, designed to serve the interests of empire, instead serve the God of Israel against the Israelite king and his helper.

Though Zedekiah is brought as a prisoner to Babylon, he shall not see it (12:13). This is a prophecy concerning king Zedekiah's future blindness: ''They slaughtered the sons of Zedekiah before his eyes, then put out the eyes of Zedekiah; they bound him in fetters and took him to Babylon" (2 Kings 25:7). A Near Eastern treaty of about 750 B.C. includes this threat against the vassal king if he violates its conditions: "As a man of wax is blinded, thus Matti'el shall be blinded" (ANET: 660; cf. Greenberg 1983:214-215; Judg. 16:21). Nebuchadnezzar's treaty with Zedekiah may have included this detail, which then becomes the basis for Ezekiel's prophecy (cf. 17:13-14; cf. 1 Sam. 11:2). Ezekiel is knowledgeable about international politics and trade (see chap. 27).

Helper is singular in the Hebrew text, and may here refer to Egypt (12:14, RSV note; cf. Isa. 30:3-5). The book of Jeremiah tells how during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, the Egyptian army came to help Zedekiah. Jeremiah correctly prophesied the futility of such reliance (Jer. 37:6-10). Ezekiellike Hosea, Isaiah, and Jeremiahis critical of Israel's reliance upon foreign powers (cf. chap. 23).

Two recognition formulas complete this piece of street theater, stating the goal of the pantomime (12:15-16). Adding something new to the preceding statements, the second says that the Lord will permit a few refugees from Jerusalem to escape (587 B.C.) so that in Babylon they may confess their abominations among the nations. Even in exile it is not too late to change their minds and to confess faith in the Lord as represented by the prophet (cf. 12:3). Ezekiel's prophecies may not prevent the exile. Yet they will determine Israel's

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response to the exile and thereby change the course of history.

Pantomime of Jerusalem's Doom 12:17-20

12:17-18 The Pantomime

The Hebrew noun translated quaking (ra'as *, 12:18) is rendered elsewhere in Ezekiel as rumbling or earthquake (3:12-13, NRSV/RSV), noise (37:7), shaking (38:19). Its verb form is used of walls which shall shake . . . at the noise of cavalry, wheels, and chariots (26:10); of the coastlands which shall . . . shake at the sound of Tyre's military collapse (26:15); of the countryside which shakes at the cry of your pilots when Tyre sinks like a ship at sea (27:28); of the nations who quake at the sound of Egypt's fall (31:16); and of all animals and human beings who quake at the destruction of Gog (38:20). In these references, both the related noun and verb are used to portray the terrors of war.

Such quaking is no minor agitation and would make eating and drinking nearly impossible. This quaking of Ezekiel's body is matched by his psychic state: fearfulness. As a good actor, he might show this on his face.

12:19-20 The Pantomime Interpreted

Ezekiel's pantomime, silent to this point, is followed by an interpretation (12:19); perhaps it is repeated many times during his acting (cf. 4:15:17). Ezekiel speaks to the exiles, once landed aristocrats responsible for Judah's defense but now landless (cf. 2 Kings 25:812, 18-21; esp. 25:19). About these exiles, their brothers in Jerusalem said, They have gone far from the Lord. They thus are disinherited (Ezek. 11:15) and now are to be addressed by Ezekiel as people of the land! (12:19). Some would say that this is an expression of Ezekiel's biting irony. But it may also express promise (cf. 11:16-19; for similar irony, with hidden promise, see Judg. 6:12-14).

Again, Ezekiel is to begin his interpretations with the messenger formula (12:19; cf. 12:10). As that previous oracle concerns the prince in Jerusalem and all the house of Israel in it, this oracle also is concerning the inhabitants of Jerusalem. They will experience Ezekiel's psychic anxiety, and (due to shaking and quaking?) the land will be stripped. This stripping of the land will be caused not merely

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by Babylon's armies, but by the violence of all those who live in it (cf. 7:11, 23; 8:17).

This pantomime, like the previous one, ends with the positive goal that Israel will recognize the Lord (12:20; cf. 12:16).

The Text in Biblical Context

The Prophet in Israel's History

From the text, Ezekiel's ministry seems to be confined to his own house (3:24-25; 8:1; 24:15-18; 33:30-33). Yet his is a "house church" that deals with public policy. He preaches on the issue of war and peace: on Israel's internal problems of violence (12:19), and on its external policy of revolt against Babylon (12:1-16). His message is directed to the exiles and to Jerusalem, to all the house of Israel.

In this task of public ministry, Ezekiel is not alone but stands in a long tradition. His closest colleague is Jeremiah, whose message included a sharp critique of public policy (Jer. 21:1123:8; cf. Ezek. 22:3-12; for this he endured confinement (Jer. 33:1), dungeons (38:6-13), and court trials (26:1-24). More than a century earlier, Isaiah collided with the public policy of kings Ahaz and Hezekiah (Isa. 78; 31:1-3); Amos was expelled from Israel, charged with conspiracy against king Jeroboam (Amos 7:10-12).

Not only prophetic books present the prophet as a dominant public figure; so do Israel's great works of history, Judges to 2 Kings and the Chronicles. Unfortunately, these great histories are often interpreted from the perspective of royal succession rather than from that of the histories themselves, the perspective of prophetic succession and authority. Accepting this prophetic perspective, Jesus refers to the OT as "the law and the prophets" rather than as "the law and the kings" (Matt. 22:40; Luke 16:16).

The history of Judges to Kings includes a series of nineteen prophets, thirteen named, five unnamed. [Succession of Prophets, p. 382.] Most of these prophets challenged royal policy. In a summary explaining the demise of Israel, an editor makes this statement: "Yet the Lord warned Israel and Judah by every prophet and every seer, saying, 'Turn from your evil ways and keep my commandments and my statutes, in accordance with all the law that I commanded your ancestors and that I sent to you by my servants the prophets'" (2 Kings 17:13).

Besides this primary history, the books of Chronicles present a succession of prophets who were active in guiding Israel's spiritual

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and political direction. These histories concur with Hosea and Jeremiah that there was a succession of prophets whose judgments, mainly negative, went forth as the light to shape Israel's history (Hos. 6:5; Jer. 28:8; cf. Deut. 18:15). The early church proclaimed Jesus as the climax of this succession, God's word active in world history (Mark 9:2-6; Acts 8:34-35; for Jesus as Messiah, see TBC for Ezek. 17:1-24).

The Text in the Life of the Church

On the Way

"I shall never forget it. It changed the world. Schleitheim, that is. And I knew then that God was with us." These words of Elizabeth, a leading character of the drama, begin These People Mine (Good: 35). The place and time of which Elizabeth spoke was Schleitheim, on the northern border of Switzerland, February 24, 1527. The event was a meeting of early Anabaptist leaders from which evolved the first church confession to reject warfare as an activity for God's people.

Two articles of the Schleitheim Confession speak to public policy. The first is on baptism: "Baptism shall be given to all those who have been taught repentance and the amendment of life . . , and to all those who desire to walk in the resurrection of Jesus Christ and be buried with him in death, so that they might rise with him; . . . hereby is excluded all infant baptism" (Schleitheim: 10). By death and resurrection, baptism spiritually and morally separates the Christian from the general society and unites them "in the one body of Christ, that is the congregation of God, whose head is Christ" (Schleitheim: 11, art. 3). This article first challenged the structure of ancient society and pointed the way to the separation of church and state in the new world.

The sixth article, on the sword, also speaks to public policy: "We have been united as follows concerning the sword. The sword is an ordering of God outside the perfection of Christ. . . . But within the perfection of Christ, only the ban is used for the admonition and exclusion of the one who has sinned, . . . simply the warning and command to sin no more" (Schleitheim: 14).

It is a long way from Ezekiel's pantomime to the Schleitheim Confession. But Ezekiel is on the way. He with his predecessors were committed to the prophetic word of God as the primary shaper of the social order, forming both Israel and its relation to the nations. Whether in the land or in exile, Israel's relationship to Babylon is not

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to be ruled by the sword. Jesus universalized and deepened this vision by death and resurrection and by sending his disciples to the nations to establish this new order.

It is also a long way from Schleitheim to the present. But again, Schleitheim is on the way. In baptism, there will "fall away from us the diabolical weapons of violence . . . by virtue of the word of Christ: 'You shall not resist evil' " (Schleitheim: 13, art. 4). It remains to be worked out, just how this new social structure and relation of the church to the nations will be expressed in the global village of the twenty-first century. But it is important that Christians be on this way.

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"What Is This Proverb?" Debate with the People:

Ezekiel 12:21-28

Preview

Prophecy is not necessarily "straight from above." The prophet has ears. He listens to what the people are saying in far-off Jerusalem and on the river Chebar, the exiles among whom he lives. Ezekiel knows the people's moods and, in an inspired moment, exposes and argues against their banal sayings.

Although the other oracles in Ezekiel 12-14 are directed against Israel's leadersking, prophets, and eldersthe two oracles of 12:21-28 and the preceding oracle (12:17-20) are directed against the people (cf. OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). In Israel, it is the people's responsibility to disobey their human leaders' plans that violate God's leadership.

Outline

Oracle Against Judah's Proverb, 12:21-25

12:21-22

Introduction and Proverb

12:23-25

Proverb Reversed and Refuted

Oracle Against the Exiles' Proverb, 12:26-28

12:26-27

Introduction and Proverb

12:28

Proverb Negated

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Explanatory Notes

In the temple vision, Ezekiel quoted three proverbs of the people to expose their wrong thinking (8:12; 9:9; 11:3, 15). In this text he argues against two of their proverbs (12:21-25, 26-28), the first likely current in Judah, the second among the exiles. The structures of both arguments run parallel: revelation formula in 12:21, 26; address formula in 12:22a, 27a; proverb quoted in 12:22b, 27b; proverb refuted in 12:23-25, 28a, introduced by therefore and messenger formula; the arguments close with an assurance statement and an oracle formula in 12:25e, 28d.

Oracle Against Judah's Proverb 12:21-25

12:21-22 Introduction and Proverb

A proverb (Heb: masal *, 12:22) in this context is a short, pithy statement repeated by the people to express a general truth. Here the Lord accuses the prophet along with the people: this proverb of yours (pl.). This does not necessarily mean that Ezekiel uses the proverb, though he may be tempted to do so (cf. 20:49). Instead, it expresses the leader's solidarity with and responsibility for the people, as when God includes Moses with those who break the Sabbath (Exod. 16:28).

The text may be translated, in the land of Israel, referring to the people in Judah (12:22, NIV). If this translation is correct, Ezekiel likely has heard the report from Judah by underground communication (cf. 33:21-22: Jer. 51:59-64).

12:23-25 Proverb Reversed and Refuted

The NIV catches the meaning of the prophecy: "The days go by and every vision comes to nothing" (12:22). But the more literal translation of the NRSV captures the precise reversal in the Hebrew:

The days are prolonged, and every vision comes to nothing. (12:22)

The days are near, and the fulfillment of every vision. (12:23)

The previous date given in this series of oracles was 592 B.C.; the next date is 591 (8:1; 20:1). Jerusalem's destruction in 587 is not far away, the fulfillment of Ezekiel's visions. The rebuttal of the proverb includes a statement against the false vision, the flattering or smooth divination which, contrary to Ezekiel's oracles, promises a bright fu-

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ture (12:24). This critique makes a tie with chapter 13, especially 13:6, 9, 23.

The argument closes with a strong affirmation of Ezekiel's prophecies, emphasizing the speaker, the Lord: I the Lord will speak the word . . . and fulfill it (12:25). God threatens that the prophecy will happen not to some future generation but to theirs: in your days.

Oracle Against the Exiles' Proverb 12:26-28

This proverb is not a general criticism of prophecy as in verse 22, but is directed specifically against Ezekiel's prophecies: the vision that he sees (12:27). Because the criticism is directed against Ezekiel, one may assume that this is a proverb of the exiles among whom he lives. Unlike 12:22, it does not deny the truth of his prophecy, but only that it is not for their times. As with the first proverb, Ezekiel's refutation is that performance of his prophecy will not be delayed any longer.

The Text in Biblical Context

"What Is This Proverb?"

The Hebrew noun translated proverb (masal *, 12:22) here designates a short, pithy statement, quoted by the people to express a general truth. In other contexts the Hebrew noun may be translated parable, a "short allegorical story designed to convey a truth or moral lesson" (Random: 963; see Ezek. 17:2). The verb may be rendered like (masal, Job 30:19; Ps. 49:12) to express a simile, "a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared" (Random: 1226). In the OT, the short pithy proverb occurs often (1 Sam. 11:12; the book of Proverbs); in the NT, less often (Luke 4:23; 2 Pet. 2:22). This essay will be limited to Ezekiel's use of the proverb.

In Ezekiel 12:21-28 and 18:1-20, Ezekiel quotes proverbs of the people to refute their ideas. This literary type is called a "disputation speech." The disputation may not always quote a proverb but may simply read back to the people what they say (cf. Ezek. 18:19, 25; Isa. 30:15-17; Jer. 2:23-25).

As in 12:27, Ezekiel does not designate the three sayings quoted in his temple vision as proverbs (8:12; 9:9; 11:3, 15). Though he uses these proverbs mainly to expose the situation in Jerusalem to the elders in exile, he also refutes them (9:10). He contradicts their proverb about the exiles' alienation from God and promises that the future lies with the exiled community (11:14-21).

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In his parable of Jerusalem's alienated history, Ezekiel cites a common proverb which everyone who uses proverbs will quote against Jerusalem: Like mother, like daughter (16:44-52). Here he does not refute the proverb but exposits it, pointing out that Jerusalem's father is a Hittite, her mother is a Canaanite, and her sisters are Samaria and Sodom.

Ezekiel cites proverbs from Jerusalem, from the exiles in Babylon, and proverbs used by everyone, presumably foreign peoples. This use of the proverb reveals one of Ezekiel's methods, how first he listens to the people, and then in the inspired moment, he speaks to issues with which they are concerned.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Modern Proverbs

At the World Council of Churches, Amsterdam, 1948, theologian Emil Brunner proposed that part of the difficulty in evangelism is that the structure of biblical thought contradicts most peoples' convictions expressed by their proverbs. On his suggestion, axioms or proverbs were gathered up from several Western countries. Here are a few:

Proverbs from Britain

1. There may be a Godbut what does it matter?

2. People need educationnot redemption.

3. A sense of sin cramps your style.

4. Christianity's all rightif it worked.

5. Just the art of being kind is all this world needs.

Proverbs from America

1. Look out for number one. If you don't, nobody else will.

2. There have always been wars, and there always will be.

You can't change human nature.

3. "God" is really a projection of man's ideals.

4. A man's religion is his own business,

and everyone has a right to his own belief.

5. Do a good turn when you canbut don't be a sucker.

Proverbs from Germany (translated)

1. I don't believe anything stable exists.

And when you're dead, everything is finished, anyhow.

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2. How can I be guilty of the misery of humanity?

Find the guilty and punish them!

But I want a little peace.

3. We've had such a bad time for so long,

it's time somebody else had a taste of it!

4. Nobody helps mewhy should I help other people?

I'm not going to give people more than they give me.

5. It seems as if God plays a part in the lives of certain people.

Unfortunately, I myself have gotten beyond this stage!

Proverbs from France (translated)

1. Prove to me that God exists, and I'll believe in him.

2. Everything is relative.

3. Every religion is good, provided you really believe in it.

4. Christians are no better than anyone else.

5. God will forgive; that's what he's there for.

6. What have I done to deserve this? (World Council: 81-84)

Readers from the southern hemisphere may compile from their own countries a list of proverbs or general beliefs missing in the Amsterdam listing. Those from the above countries may wish to update them. Ezekiel leads the way in showing us how a people's parables provide one window into their thinking. This may help the congregation discern where people are in relation to the Bible's message.

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''Daubers of Whitewash":

Against the Prophets:

Ezekiel 13:1-23

Preview

Religious leaders who misguide rather than guide are a phenomenon not only of modern times. After trumpeting a warning against Israel's king, Ezekiel also censures the prophets, those of his own kind who are supposed to point the way for king and people (cf. 12:1-16; 2:5).

Chapters 13 and 34 are unique to the book of Ezekiel in that both generalize; they do not deal with specific leaders or groups as do chapters 12 and 14, but speak at length to two categories of leadership: prophets and kings (cf. Jer. 23:1-22; Deut. 17:1418:22). In both chapters the Lord identifies Israel as my people and promises to deliver them from counterfeit leaders.

These words, my people, are covenant words; they occur seven times in chapter 13. Since this covenant is between God and people rather than between God and leader, prophets in Israel must identify themselves with the people; with them, they must acknowledge themselves as under the law and guidance of God. From the perspective of covenant faithfulness, Ezekiel censures the prophets. They prophesy out of their own imagination (13:2), proclaim says the Lord when the Lord has not sent them (13:6), and claim to see visions of peace for Jerusalem when there is no peace (13:10).

The two parts of this chapter, with complementary themes of male and female prophets, have a similar structure, shown in the outline.

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Outline

Revelation Formula, 13:1

Against Male Prophets, 13:2-16

13:2-9, Indictment-Judgment

Series I

Command: Address Prophets Who Prophesy from Imagination, 13:2

Messenger Formula and Indictment, 13:3-7

Messenger Formula:

Therefore, 13:8a

Judgment Threat, 13:8b-9d

Recognition Formula, 13:9e

13:10-16 Indictment-Judgment

Series II

Indictment:

Because, Because, 13:10-12

Judgment Threat:

Therefore, 13:13a-14d

Recognition Formula, 13:14e

Summation:

Messenger Formula, 13:15-16

Against Female Prophets, 13:17-23

13:17-21, Indictment-Judgment

Series I

Command: Address Daughters Who Prophesy from Imagination, 13:17

Messenger Formula and Indictment, 13:18-19

Messenger Formula:

Therefore, 13:20a

Judgment Threat, 13:20-21c

Recognition Formula, 13:21d

13:22-23, Indictment-Judgment

Series II

Indictment:

Because, 13:22

Judgment Threat:

Therefore, 13:23ab

Recognition Formula, 13:23c

Explanatory Notes

Against the Male Prophets: Indictment-Judgment

Series I 13:1-9

13:2-7 Indictment 1: Jackals Among Ruins

Ezekiel's basic critique is the same for male and female prophets: both prophesy out of their own imagination (13:2, 17). This source, human desire and wisdom, is contrasted with the word of the Lord, which these counterfeit prophets are called to hear. Ezekiel can proclaim this word because of revelation: The word of the Lord came to me (13:1). [Revelation Formula, p. 381.] If there is no revelation, Ezekiel's prophecy is no different from theirs.

The word for alas/woe (Heb.: hoy, 13:3) often introduces a death lament (cf. 1 Kings 13:30); here it introduces an indictment and pronouncement of judgment. In the book of Ezekiel, it is used exclusively against false leaders (13:3, 18; 34:2).

The prophets are foolish (13:3, NIV; Heb.: nebalim), a concept which has spiritual and moral connotations. Fools act as if there is no God. They are corrupt, do abominable deeds, and are contrasted

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with those who understand, who seek after God (Ps. 14:1-2). Jesus contrasts the foolish with the wise: the foolish reject the authority of his words; the wise accept them (Matt. 7:24-27).

The foolish prophets follow their own spirit (or wind; Heb.: ruah *); they have seen nothing: they have had no vision from God (13:3). They may be contrasted to Ezekiel, who says, The Spirit (ruah) of the Lord fell upon me, and he said to me . . ." (11:5). They substitute their own authority for divine authority.

Ezekiel describes these prophets by what they are like (13:4), by what they have neglected to do (13:5), and by what they have said (13:6) and seen (13:7). They are like jackals (Heb.: su'alim*) among ruins: instead of trying to change the situation, they adapt to it, exploiting it to their own advantage (13:4, cf. Judg. 15:4; Ps. 63:10). For survival, they accommodate to their environment.

The prophets have not gone up to the breaks in the wall (13:5, NIV; cf. Neh. 6:1; 1 Kings 11:27). Ezekiel applies this military figure to the prophets. Having proclaimed the word of God like a good sentinel, they are then to intercede on behalf of the people to avert the calamity which they proclaimed (cf. 4:4-6; notes on 9:8; 11:13). Psalm 106:23 tells how Moses withstood the wrath of God after Israel worshiped the golden calf (Exod. 32:11-14):

Therefore he said he would destroy them

had not Moses, his chosen one

stood in the breach before him,

to turn away his wrath from destroying them.

Besides neglecting their vocation as intercessors, these prophets have not exercised their vocation as God's sentinels (Ezek. 3:17) to warn the people: they have not repaired a wall (13:5). For the day of the Lord, see comments on chapter 7. Here it is the day of battle, the Lord's battle against Israel. Ezekiel's use of military imagery for the prophets' duty is not "spiritualizing," as this term is often employed. In the ancient Near East, prophets accompanied the army, directing movements of troops (Mari Texts, ANET: 482; cf. 2 Kings 3:9-20).

Moses as God's messenger proclaimed the Lord's word to Israelite elders and to Pharaoh, saving Israel in that conflict (Exod. 3:10, 16-17; 5:1). The foreign diviner, Balaam, pronounced a blessing rather than a curse upon Israel; in this way he frustrated the military designs of the king of Moab (Num. 2224; esp. 24:10). In the spirit of this tradition, Jeremiah is placed "over nations and kingdoms, . . . to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant" (1:10).

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So now, Ezekiel indicts the prophets in the exile and Jerusalem for not repairing the wall, for not proclaiming the Lord's word to save Israel in its conflict with Babylon. The Lord's word in this conflict is not that they fight, but that they be a faithful community in the midst of Babylon (cf. chap. 18).

These accommodating prophets speak in the Lord's name: says the Lord (13:6). By doing this, they confuse the people even more than did the prophets of Baal who spoke in the name of Baal. One may compare Hananiah's prophecy, opposed by Jeremiah (28:2-4), with the prayer of the Baal prophets, opposed by Elijah (1 Kings 18:26). There was no confusion of names in the Elijah conflict.

Since prophets are the Lord's messengers, it is important that the Lord has sent them (13:6; cf. 2:2-4). Jeremiah complained of the prophets,

I did not send the prophets,

yet they ran. (23:21; cf. 23:18)

Though these prophets speak out of their own imagination, have seen nothing, and are not sent, yet they expect God to fulfill their word (13:6, RSV). In this sense they are sincere but will be disillusioned when the collapse comes. Theirs is a false vision, a lying divination (13:7, 9; cf. 12:24). They are false prophets.

13:8-9 Judgment Threat 1: My Hand Against the Prophets

The Lord's hand appears in Israel's recitals as the hand which delivers (13:9; cf. Deut. 26:8). As this hand destroyed the oppressor (Exod. 15:12), so now it will destroy the prophets whose lying divinations again threaten Israel. The words my people are covenant words which appear throughout this chapter seven times (13:9-10, 18, 19ac, 21, 23; PREVIEW).

Three specific threats are made: they will not be enrolled in the council of God's people, perhaps meaning that they will be excluded from their leadership role (cf. 2 Kings 6:32). Second, they will not be enrolled in the register of the house of Israel, perhaps the census list (cf. Ezra 2:62; Ruth 4:10). Third, they will not be permitted to enter the land of Israel. This obviously means that in this Indictment/Judgment Series I, Ezekiel speaks against the prophets who are with him in Babylon, his immediate competitors for Israel's ear (cf. Jer. 29:2122). They will have no part in building the new community beyond the exile.

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The pronouns referring to the prophets alternate: third person plural (they: 13:2-4, 6, 9); second person plural (you: 13:5, 7-8; ye, KJV). This style of alternating pronoun is acceptable Hebrew grammar and is characteristic of other ancient Near Eastern writings (cf. Greenberg, 1983:242-243).

These negative judgments end with a positive result: you shall know that I am the Lord (13:9b; cf. 13:14, 21, 23). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] When Ezekiel's prophecy is fulfilled, these accommodating prophets will know that Ezekiel's moral Lord, rather than their nationalistic deity, is the Authority in world history.

Against the Male Prophets: Indictment-Judgment

Series II 13:10-16

13:10-12 Indictment 2: Daubers of Whitewash

Prophetic religion emphasizes the why of judgment more than judgment itself. Here the Hebrew preposition rendered because is repeated for emphasis (13:10). See the parallel in 13:22, where it appears only once.

These prophets misled the people with their own message rather than the Lord's. The prophets bore good news when the events were bad, making it impossible for the people to change course to evade the threatening disaster.

The meaning of peace (salom *) is elusive because of its comprehensiveness. Here it means "all is well," "prosperity." Such well-being flows out of faithfulness in covenant relationships. Israel, unfaithful in its relationships, cannot have shalom.

Ezekiel criticizes the prophets because they did not build a wall (Heb.: gader, 13:5); here the people build a wall (Heb: hayits*, 13:10c). The meaning of hayits is uncertain since it occurs only here. Is it a wall without mortar? Instead of warning the people of the wall's inadequacy, the prophets daub it over with some kind of plaster. The word whitewash, though scientifically incorrect, communicates the correct emotional tone. The prophets pretty up the wall instead of providing one which is adequate. They are the public relations department, selling a policy which the people have made, a policy that leads to death.

Ezekiel cuts through the prophets' propaganda with a threat of judgment. Deluge of rain, hailstones, and stormy wind are expressions used of the Lord's war (13:11; cf. Exod. 14:21; 15:8, 10; Josh. 10:11; 2 Sam. 22:16). Divine intervention which once saved Israel

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will now destroy it. This threat ends in a mocking taunt against the

prophets: Where is the daubing? (13:12). Their false propaganda is

exposed.

13:13-16 Judgment Threat 2: The Deluge; Summation

With the word therefore, the indictment moves to the judgment threat proper (13:13; cf. 13:8, 20, 23). Note the progression of the verbs which climax in the recognition formula:

I will make a stormy wind. (13:13)

I will break down the wall. (13:14a)

You shall perish in the midst of it. (13:14b, RSV)

And you shall know. (13:14c)

In the Hebrew of 13:14, a subtle change occurs in the antecedents of the pronoun it, not apparent in English. The first two pronouns are masculine and refer to wall, a masculine noun. The last two, feminine, refer to Jerusalem (13:16), a feminine noun: when she (Jerusalem) falls, these prophets shall perish in the midst of her. In this "Indictment-Judgment Series II," Ezekiel speaks to the Jerusalem prophets; in "Series I," he speaks to Israelite prophets in Babylon (cf. 13:9).

In their own destruction, the accommodating Jerusalem prophets will recognize I am Yahweh, the divine name given to Moses at the exodus (13:14e; Exod. 6:2; cf. Ezek. 13:9). They will discover the righteous Lord of the exodus, who delivers God's people from the oppression of their self-serving, nationalistic prophecies.

This oracle against the male prophets ends with a summation (13:15-16). Both people and prophets will suffer because of the Lord's wrath: The wall is no more, nor those who daubed it (13:15, RSV). The summation ends with a repetition of the indictment (13:16; cf. 13:10).

Against the Female Prophets: Indictment-Judgment

Series I 13:17-21

The careful parallelism of these two critiques suggests the seriousness with which Ezekiel took the women prophets (cf. OUTLINE). He does not criticize them for prophesying, but because they prophesy out of their own imagination (13:17), the same charge leveled against the male prophets (13:2).

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As in the critique of the males, the indictment begins like a funeral dirge: Woe (13:18; cf. 13:3, RSV). Here the indictment is against the women's magical practices, which they evidently mixed in with their prophecies. Magic is an attempt to manipulate divinity to achieve one's own goals. Deuteronomy 18:9-22 forbids these "abominable practices" (RSV) of the nations, and contrasts them with the word of the intuitive prophet, to whom Israel was to listen (cf. also Exod. 22:18; Lev. 20:27; 1 Sam. 28:9).

Bands (or charms, 13:18; cf. 13:20) and veils (13:21) are obscure magical practices used to enforce the prophetic will upon persons (13:19). For hunt down lives, see the warning against the adulteress in Proverbs (6:26). The false prophetesses concern is for their own economic benefit: maintain your own lives (13:18; cf. Mic. 3:5).

Handfuls of barley and pieces of bread (13:19) may refer to payment for divination (cf. 1 Sam. 9:7-8), to a magic practice, or to cereal offerings to a pagan divinity. The seriousness of such seemingly trivial practices is that these prophets dispense life and death by them, all in the name of the Lord, who is thereby profaned (13:19).

The indictment is followed by threat of judgment (13:20-21), introduced by the word therefore (cf. 13:8, 13, 23). The threat against the prophets is accompanied with promise: I will . . . save people (13:21). As the Lord once delivered the people from ruthless Pharaoh, so God now will deliver them from their own oppressive leaders (cf. 13:9). Again, judgment and deliverance lead to the goal of recognition, that the God of the exodus is God also of the present moment (13:21b; cf. 13:9b).

Against Female Prophets: Indictment/Judgment

Series II 13:22-23

This indictment begins with because (13:22) as does its parallel in 13:10. False prophets may be defined by the effect of their prophecies: They disheartened the righteous falsely and encouraged the wicked. The value judgment which enables one to discern the righteous from the wicked is provided by the law of the Lord, in whose name these prophets speak.

The word turn in this context may be translated repent (13:22). It means to turn from one's own wicked way and thereby to save one's life. Apart from 3:16-21; 18:1-32; and 33:1-20, the word turn (as repent) is used only here and in 14:6. Discerning true prophetic leadership is a matter of life and death.

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Again, the threat-promise in the second series begins with therefore (13:20) and ends with recognition of the God of the exodus deliverance: I am the Lord (13:23; cf. 13:9e, 14e, 21d).

The Text in Biblical Context

Counterfeit Prophets

Division between the Lord's prophets first occurs in the narrative of Micaiah (1 Kings 22). His story is decisive for understanding the counterfeit prophets. Four hundred prophets served at the throne of human kingship, catering to nationalistic aggrandizement and power (22:10-12). Micaiah, on the other hand, was servant at the throne of the Lord; he served the covenant God of Moses, whose promise involved ethical demand (22:19). Because the four hundred prophets were aligned with nationalistic arrogance, a heavenly messenger put in their mouths a lying spirit. Their word sent king Ahab to his death.

Isaiah, prophet of the eighth century, encountered prophets who "are confused with wine" and who "stumble in giving judgment" (28:7). He complained about his people,

who say to the seers, "Do not see";

and to the prophets, "Do not prophesy to us what is right;

speak to us smooth things,

prophesy illusions,

leave the way, turn aside from the path,

let us hear no more about the Holy One of Israel." (30:10-11)

Both of these prophecies are within contexts where Isaiah opposes Judah's foreign policies.

Micah, an eighth-century contemporary of Isaiah, also complained about his people:

If a liar and deceiver comes and says,

"I will prophesy for you plenty of wine and beer,"

he would be just the prophet for this people! (2:11, NIV)

Micah complains that the prophets proclaim "peace" to the one who feeds them, but "wage war" against the one who does not (3:5). He contrasts himself with them as one filled with the Lord's Spirit and therefore as one who preaches an ethical message:

But as for me, I am filled with power,

with the Spirit of the Lord,

and with justice and might,

to declare to Jacob his transgression,

to Israel his sin. (3:8)

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Jeremiah, a seventh- and sixth-century contemporary of Ezekiel, says more about these counterfeits than does any other prophet. He complains that the people love to be ruled by false prophecy (5:3031). He is the inspiration for Ezekiel's critique of these prophets:

They have treated the wound of my people carelessly,

saying, "Peace, peace,"

when there is no peace. (6:14-15; cf. 14:13-16; Ezek. 13:10)

Jeremiah 23:9-40 has the longest collection of oracles against the counterfeit prophets. These prophets are ungodly, adulterers, who "strengthen the hands of evildoers, so that no one turns from wickedness" (23:14; cf. Ezek. 13:22). They fill the people with vain hopes, speaking visions of their own minds. They have not stood in the council of the Lord (cf. 1 Kings 22:19), and God has not sent them.

Though these criticisms against prophets include women prophets, Ezekiel alone criticizes female prophets as a group. Many commentators think that he depreciates them as dabblers in magic. But in defense of Ezekiel, by critiquing their prophecy, he takes the women prophets as seriously as he does the men. The close parallel of this critique with that against the male prophets suggests that he regards them as their equals (cf. OUTLINE). He acknowledges their powerful effect upon the social order, an effect which Jeremiah credits to prophets generally (Ezek. 13:22; cf. Jer. 23:14).

The problem of counterfeit prophets persists to the end of time. Jesus warns against such prophets (Matt. 7:15; 24:11, 24; Mark 13:22), as do the writers of 1 John (4:1) and 2 Peter (2:1). John the Revelator associates the false prophet with the "beast," commonly held to be exemplified in the Roman empire (19:20; 20:10; cf. also 16:13). As in the Micaiah narrative, the counterfeit prophet is associated with imperial arrogance, which is finally overcome when prophet and beast are "thrown alive into the lake of fire" (Rev. 19:20).

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The Text in the Life of the Church

Women and Men of the Reformation

In his Pentecostal sermon, Peter declares that the prophecy of Joel has now come to pass: God has poured out the prophetic Spirit upon all people, both men and women (Joel 2:28-32; Acts 2:17-18). Martyrs Mirror, a collection of stories of Christian martyrs mainly from the sixteenth century, tells of men and women who were "killed for their faith because their belief in the voluntary faithful church upset the so-called unity of European society and appeared to be treason. . . . Eight hundred three of these martyrs are named, and many more are mentioned without being named. About one-third of these Anabaptist martyrs were women" (Barrett: session 2).

Lois Barrett writes: "For the Anabaptists, who believed that God would set things right without Christians taking up the sword or other means of physical violence, the soldiers in this battle against evil were the martyrs. . . . Women could be soldiers as well as men, because martyrdom did not require physical strength or high status or wealth. One account of the martyrdom of three women, Elizabeth Bachmanni, Elssa Bethezei, and Sarah Wanrij, states it this way:

The army of God, which at this time prepared itself for the conflict and the sufferings of Jesus Christ, consisted not only of men, who are sometimes judged to be strongest, but also in women, for God's power is made strong in weakness, which appeared in the case of three pious heroines of God . . . all of whom, imprisoned and bound in the dungeon of Othenbach and in the hospital, for the testimony of Jesus Christ, lost their lives through want, hardships, and misery.

All this they endured in the fear of God as well as patiently. They counted their departure from this life as the beginning of the future. And so, their unrest was truly the entrance to the rest of the saints, who shall hereafter, for this brief suffering, which they endured for the name of the Lord, rejoice forevermore." (Barrett: session 2; MM: 1120-1121)

Another Elizabeth, a teacher of the Anabaptists and an associate of Menno Simons, was apprehended in 1549. She gave a good defense of her faith. Even undergoing torture, she did not recant or betray her fellow belivers to the authorities, who sentenced her to be drowned (MM: 481-483).

Maeyken Wens, a minister's wife, was such an effective witness that she was burned at Antwerp in 1573 with a tongue screw in her mouth to curtail her influence. She wrote several letters to family and friends to encourage them in the faith. After her name the compiler comments, "So persecuted they the prophets" (MM: 979-983).

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The Silent God:

Ezekiel 14:1-23

Preview

Prophets have a double task. First, they are God's messengers who speak the divine word to the people. Second, if that word is negative, they are the people's intercessors, who interpose themselves between the people and God's judgment (Gen. 20:7; Jer. 14:11-12; 15:1). The two independent oracles of this chapter, each beginning with the revelation formula (14:2, 12), speak to this double task. Both oracles are negative. In the first, the prophet will answer no inquiry from idolatrous elders or from Israel (cf. 1 Sam. 28:6). In the second, intercession is futile; God will grant no stay of retribution when any land is faithless, and especially not for Jerusalem. God is silentexcept to call to repentance (14:6). God is silentbut at the end, surprise! (14:22-23).

Ezekiel closes each of the first three portions of part 2 with a meeting with the elders. This meeting (plus comment on the futility of intercession) closes the second portion: ''From pantomiming against official policy to a second meeting with the elders" (12:114:23; cf. OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). These divisions of part 2 show that Ezekiel's first ministry is to the exiles: to dissuade them from joining Jerusalem's revolt against Babylon, and to challenge them to accept prophetic leadership in building the Lord's community in Babylon.

Outline

"Shall I Let Myself Be Consulted?" 14:1-11

14:1-3

Elders Consult, God Questions

14:4-5

A Legal Oracle for the Elders

14:6-8

A Legal Oracle for Israel

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14:9-10

A Legal Oracle for the Misguided Prophet

14:11

The Saving Purpose of God's Silence

Do Not Pray for This People, 14:12-23

14:12-20

No Reprieve from the General Law of Retribution

14:21

No Reprieve from This Law for Jerusalem

14:22-23

But Surprise!

Explanatory Notes

The two oracles of this chapter complement each other in that they speak to the two aspects of prophetic ministry (PREVIEW). Both are influenced by a legal style which compares with the form of certain laws in Leviticus.

"Shall I Let Myself Be Consulted?" 14:1-11

14:1-3 Elders Consult; God Questions

The elders may have had a practice of visiting Ezekiel's house for consultations (14:1; cf. 8:1; 20:1). The records of their first and last consultations are dated: the sixth and seventh years of Ezekiel's exile (8:1; 20:1). [Chronology, p. 377.] This second recorded consultation lies between these dates. The elders are probably heads of extended families who, meeting together with the prophet, make decisions involving the community (for such consultations in early Israel, cf. 1 Sam. 9:5-21; 2 Kings 6:32).

Likely as response to the elders' inquiry, the prophet receives a revelation (14:2). The Lord addresses Ezekiel, reveals the problem, and confronts him with a rhetorical question (14:3). The elders' problem is not the question they bring to inquire of the prophet, whatever that may have been. Instead, it is that they, like the Jerusalem leadership, are idolaters (cf. 8:5-6, 10, 14, 16). They have taken their idols into their hearts (14:3); that is, their idolatry is a matter of their inner commitment rather than of cultic practice in worshiping idols. As God elsewhere tells Ezekiel about the people,

They sit before you as my people, and they hear your words, but they will not obey them. For flattery is on their lips, but their heart is set on their gain. (33:31)

For a discussion of the accusation, their iniquity as a stumbling block (14:3-4, 7), see notes on 7:19.

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The Lord follows the accusation by a rhetorical question, Shall I let myself be consulted by them? (14:3). Hypocrisy in seeking the Lord's direction will not be tolerated (cf. 20:1-3; 33:30-33). The elders' problem is much deeper than the one which they have brought to the consultation.

14:4-5 A Legal Oracle for the Elders

The Lord's first command to Ezekiel is to speak to the elders about this deeper problem (14:4). The prophet's messenger formula, Thus says the Lord God, is followed by a threat, made as a legal statement: Any of those of the house of Israel who take their idols into their hearts. . . . In Hebrew, this beginning of Ezekiel's threat is identical with that of four Levitical laws ("anyone of the house/people of Israel"; Lev. 17:3, 8, 10, 13; cf. RSV). The threat is enlarged in Ezekiel 14:7: Any of those of the house of Israel, or of the aliens who reside. . . .

Ezekiel's use of the legal form may be explained by the fact that Ezekiel is a priest, charged to teach Israel God's law (1:3; cf. Deut. 33:7-10). There also is a close relationship between law and the prophet. As stated in the Pentateuch, law is given by God to Moses, who then like a prophet communicates it to the people (cf. Exod. 20:22; Lev. 15:1; 16:1; 17:1; etc.). The great prophets are guardians and interpreters of the law (Amos 2:6-8; Hos. 4:1-3). Like Moses, Ezekiel actually creates new law. It is therefore appropriate that the prophet's messenger formula is here united with the legal form. Law, given to all Israel, is applied to each individual person, as Ezekiel says here: Any man/one (14:4, 7, RSV).

Here the law with which Ezekiel deals, the first and second commandments, underlies the teaching of most of the prophets. Not the one who makes idols is here condemned (cf. Exod. 32:4, 21-24, 30, 35), but the one who takes his idols into his heart (Ezek. 14:7, RSV), anyone committed to following other gods. It is not merely that this one is committed to other gods, but that the one so committed yet come(s) to the prophet (14:4, 7). Obviously, this coming is motivated by other considerations than to know and do the Lord's will (cf. 33:30-33).

The statement, I the Lord will answer them, renders some difficult Hebrew (14:4; cf. RSV note). The GNB translates, will get an answer from methe answer that his many idols deserve! The Lord's answer will not speak to the question the elders bring, but to their problem of hypocrisy and alienation.

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The purpose of the Lord's answer is to take hold of the hearts of the house of Israel (14:5). The NIV interprets correctly, I will do this to recapture the hearts of the people of Israel. Compare this with 14:11, the second purpose clause of this prophecy (so that, in order that). In both verses, the purpose of the divine negative action is positive: to recapture the hearts of Israel (14:5), that Israel may no longer go astray (14:11). [Worship, p. 382.]

In some contexts, the word estranged (14:5) may be translated, "to be a stranger" or "a foreigner." The character of the gods is foreign to that of the God of Israel. Being devoted to them, the character of the elders becomes like them, and thus foreign to their own God.

14:6-8 A Legal Oracle for Israel

The second command to Ezekiel in this text is to address an enlarged audience, the house of Israel, whom the elders represent (14:6). After the messenger formula, thus says the Lord God, the first word to this audience is Repent, turn. The same Hebrew word (sub *) is used here three times, though in two forms. The NEB translates, Turn away, turn away from your idols; turn your backs on all your abominations. The Hebrew concept of repentance is more than a change of mind. It is well expressed by the word turn, to redirect the total person. In Ezekiel, the word occurs with this meaning in 3:16-21; 18:1-32; 33:1-20; and in only two other passages (13:22; 14:6).

Ezekiel expands this legal threat to include the aliens who reside in Israel (14:7; cf. 14:4). Resident aliens lived in ancient Israel because of economic hardship, persecution, war in their homeland, or for the purpose of trade. Because they had only limited rights, they were of special concern to biblical law (Exod. 22:21; 23:9). They were to be free from labor on the Sabbath (20:10) and to observe the day of atonement (Lev. 16:29) and ritual laws (Lev. 17). They might become wealthy (25:47) and celebrate the Passover (Num. 9:14). They were to be equals with Israelites before the Lord and the law (15:13-16). They were not merely to be tolerated, but were to be loved in the same measure as the Israelites love themselves (Lev. 19:18, 33-34).

Ezekiel denounces Israel's princes for oppressing aliens (22:7), and the landed people for denying them justice (22:29). In his vision of the future, he goes beyond the law of Moses by giving property rights to aliens (47:22-23). However, Ezekiel speaks in 14:7 not about the aliens in the land of Israel but about those who have attached themselves to the Israelite community in Babylon. Yet he still

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uses the old formula of Levitical law: or of the aliens who reside in Israel (14:7; cf. Lev. 20:2). Isaiah 56:3 brought the formula up to date: "the foreigner joined to the Lord" (Greenberg, 1983:249). They have the same right as any exiled Israelite to inquire of the Lord through the prophet (14:7).

As Ezekiel is a sign (Heb.: mopet, 12:6, 11; 24:24, 27), so any such transgressor is a sign ('ot, a synonym to mopet), one whom others will be like if they follow the ways of that transgressor (cf. notes on 12:11). Similarly, Jeremiah (24:9) speaks of a people who are a byword (Heb.: masal *, "proverb"). Cut him off from the midst of my people (14:8, RSV) probably means that the Lord will give such persons an early death.

The recognition formula follows the legal statement (14:8b). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] The pronoun you is plural in Hebrew, referring to the exiles with their elders and the associated aliens. By fulfillment of this prophecy, they will know that the Lord is one Lord, beside whom there is no other (cf. Deut. 6:4; 32:39). Though the punishment is severe, God's purpose is positive (cf. 14:11).

14:9-10 A Legal Oracle for the Misguided Prophet

A prophet may be deceived about the commitment of an inquirer and answer with an oracle (14:9). The Lord may deceive false prophets, as in Micaiah's vision (1 Kings 22:19-23), or "entice" a prophet (Jer. 20:7). The Lord once incited David to number the people, for which David was punished (2 Sam. 24:1). A later account says that Satan incited David to do this (1 Chron. 21:1). The Lord's deception of a prophet does not exempt that one from responsibility for the prophecy.

Only once in the book of Ezekiel is the punishment borne by one other than the offender (14:10; cf. 4:4-8). For the death of a false prophet, see Jeremiah 28:15-17 (cf. Acts 5:1-11).

14:11 The Saving Purpose of God's Silence

Though some of his preaching may seem harsh, Ezekiel here highlights a positive goal. The ultimate purpose of God's silence is to heal the relationship between the Lord and Israel. The oracle ends with the covenant formula: They shall be my people, and I will be their God (cf. Ezek. 36:28; 37:23, 27; Jer. 7:23; 11:4; 24:7; 30:22; 31:1, 33; 32:38; Hos. 1:10; 2:23; Exod. 6:7; Lev. 26:12). This covenant relationship is central to the Lord's leadership of Israel and of

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the world. When God's people reject idolatry and are faithful to covenant, the divine silence is broken.

Do Not Pray for This People 14:12-23

Although this oracle is independent from the oracle against the elders, it correlates with it since it deals with the second task of a prophet: intercession for the offender (PREVIEW).

14:12-20 No Reprieve from the General Law of Retribution

The law of retribution is stated throughout this section in a general way: when a land sins (14:13); the land (14:15); that land (14:17, 19). This law, as Ezekiel views it, applies to all lands.

In a repetitive way, Ezekiel presents four judgments, any one of which the Lord might bring against a land: famine (14:13), wild animals (14:15), a sword (14:17), pestilence (14:19). These are conventional judgments, presented also in ancient Near Eastern literature other than the Bible (cf. Lev. 26:21-26; Rev. 6:2-8).

Three righteous persons are named at the beginning and end of this section, forming an envelope (14:14, 20). [Inclusio, p. 379.] One may consult relevant texts on Job and Noah (Gen. 6:9; 7:1; Job 1:1; Isa. 54:9; Heb. 11:7; 1 Pet. 3:20). Daniel probably is not the hero of the book of Daniel but designates a universally known non-Israelite hero, as do the other names (cf. Ezek. 28:3). A text from the ancient city Ugarit on the Mediterranean coast says,

Straightway Daniel . . .

Is upright, sitting before the gate,

Beneath a mighty tree on the threshing floor,

Judging the cause of the widow,

Adjudicating the case of the fatherless. (ANET: 151; cf. 486)

14:21 No Reprieve from This Law for Jerusalem

Verse 21 is the punch line: How much more! (NRSV). How much worse! (NIV). How much less hope! (NEB). The above cases against "a land" are hypothetical; this case against Jerusalem is a present threat. The above cases will receive individual judgments; against Jerusalem, the four deadly acts are to be sent all at one time.

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14:22-23 But Surprise!

But there will be a surprise: Yet, behold (14:22, KJV). The surprise is that there will be survivors. The word deliver is not used of these Israelite survivors, however, though in the hypothetical cases the word deliver is used seven times (RSV: 14:14, 16, 16, 18, 18, 20, 20. NRSV: save. Heb.: nasal *). This omission is probably deliberate. Survivors they are, but they are not "saved." That is, they do not serve the Lord and are morally in pitiable shape.

Those already in exile with Ezekiel will be consoled for the evil (14:22). This is a strange use of the word console. NEB translates, This will be some comfort to you for all the harm I have done to Jerusalem (cf. 32:31). Even their relatives will be comforted when they see that God in judgment has acted with justice.

The Text in Biblical Context

Famine of the Word

Nearly two centuries before Ezekiel, Amos prophesied that there would be a famine in the land of Israel:

I will send a famine on the land;

not a famine of bread or a thirst for water,

but of hearing the words of the Lord. (Amos 8:11-12)

Because of disloyalty, this kind of famine may mark an entire epoch. The biblical narrative says of the period preceding Samuel's ministry: "The word of the Lord was rare in those days; visions were not widespread" (1 Sam. 3:1).

This famine for God's word was experienced personally by king Saul. Pressed by the Philistines, he inquired of the Lord for guidance. But the Lord "did not answer him, not by dreams, or by Urim, or by prophets" (1 Sam. 28:6). He had massacred the priests at Nob, so the Lord did not answer him by Urim (22:14-19; cf. Ezra 2:63). He had disobeyed and alienated the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. 15:35; 16:2), so the Lord did not answer him by the prophets. Famine of the word resulted in Saul's death (28:15-25; 31:4).

As stated three times in Ezekiel, the elders came to the prophet for a revelation (8:111:25; 14:1-11; 20:1-44). On the first occasion, the Lord responds in a positive way to their inquiry. On the second and third occasions, the Lord asks, Shall I let myself be consulted by them? (14:3). Why are you coming? To consult me? As I live, says the Lord God, I will not be consulted by you (20:3). Because of their

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idolatry and hypocrisy, the Lord does not answer the elder's inquiry (14:3; 20:31). The elders are like the exiles whom they represent; their lips say one thing, but their hearts are somewhere else (33:31). They are responsible for the famine of God's word.

On the elder's specific inquiry, the Lord is silent. Fortunately for the community of faith, however, there is no total famine of the word of God. Ezekiel remains as a prophet among them; his message calls them to repentance (14:6).

In the NT, Luke tells how Jesus was rejected by his own town (4:16-30). Jesus reminded the hostile Nazarenes of the prophet Elijah, sent to a widow of a foreign city (Sidon) even though there were many widows in Israel (1 Kings 17:8-16). He told of Elisha, who cleansed only Naaman, a Syrian, even though there were many lepers in Israel (2 Kings 5). Like these ancient widows and lepers of Israel, Nazareth was experiencing a famine, though unaware of it. Instead of Nazareth, his hometown, Jesus chose Capernaum as the center for his Galilean ministry.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Tolstoy's Famine

In My Confession, Leo Tolstoy tells about the famine which he experienced in his life. He says of his younger years, "I put men to death in war, I fought duels to slay others, I lost at cards, wasted my substance wrung from the sweat of peasants, punished the latter cruelly, rioted with loose women, and deceived men" (Tolstoy: 5).

In his youth he entered the literary world at Petersburg and accepted its philosophy of progress. But he perceived that these artists and poets were immoral persons. He witnessed a public execution in Paris, a beheading, which made him renounce his theory of progress.

Life for Tolstoy became meaningless, though he had a loving wife and family, a large estate, and was respected by friends and strangers. Like the writer of Ecclesiastes, he sought for life's meaning in every branch of knowledge and in every strata of society. He finally found that meaning among simple peasants who lived out their Christian faith. In his search for God, he discovered that the knowledge of truth can be gained only by living it. Although Tolstoy's hunger was never completely assuaged, his life witnesses to the saying of Jesus that truth can be known only by acting on his words (John 7:17; cf. Matt. 7:24; Eccles. 12:13-14).

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Jerusalem, a Vine in the Forest:

Ezekiel 15:1-8

Preview

No biblical prophet is more negative than Ezekiel. Jerusalem for him has become not just "like other nations" (1 Sam. 8:20) but more wicked than the nations! (5:6). While he describes the city's executioners, who kill all those without a saving mark on their foreheads, he says, While they were killing, . . . I was left aloneas though he were the only one with the mark! (9:8). Although granting that there may be a few Jerusalemites who escape sword, famine, and pestilence, Ezekiel declares that they will escape only so that they may tell of all their abominations among the nations! (12:16). Poor Ezekiel never read Norman Vincent Peale's book, The Power of Positive Thinking.

Now Ezekiel turns the biblical metaphor of the vine upside down. This usually is a positive image in the Bible (cf. John 15). When used negatively, only its fruit or type is condemned (Isa. 5:1-7). But now this prophet criticizes the vine's very nature: the worthlessness of its wood, as compared to the wood of trees. The people of Jerusalem are worthless, he says, by their very nature!

Ezekiel enlists the metaphor of the vine three times, all in the space of five chapters (15:1-8; 17:5-10; 19:10-14). Ezekiel has a meeting with the elders at the end of each of the first three portions of part 2 of his book. Thus, this third portion may be called, "Metaphors against Jerusalem and its royal policy and a third meeting with the elders" (15:120:44; cf. OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). In this portion

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Ezekiel indicts Jerusalem by enlarging on the metaphors of a worthless vine (chap. 15) and a faithless bride (chap. 16). He indicts Jerusalem's political leaders with the metaphors of a vine's relationship to two eagle gardeners (chap. 17), of people-eating lions (19:1-9), and of an arrogant sprig of a vine, towering above the cedars (19:10-14). In the midst of these negative metaphors of Jerusalem's world leadership, Ezekiel calls the house of Israel to be a new community, obedient to the leadership of God's law (chap. 18).

Outline

Metaphor: A Vine in the Middle of the Forest, 15:1-5

Lesson: City Learns Nothing; Threat of Being Twice-Burned, 15:6-8

Explanatory Notes

Metaphor: A Vine in the Middle of the Forest 15:1-5

Four rhetorical questions (NRSV), perhaps five (NIV), make up this segment. The first question establishes the main point, the next two support it with specific examples, and the last reinforces it with the fact that the vine is partially burned.

In his first rhetorical question, Ezekiel introduces two metaphors, the vine and the trees of the forest (15:2). The vine is a metaphor for the inhabitants of Jerusalem (15:6); the trees of the forest stand for the community of nations (cf. Isa. 10:33-34).

Used to comparing themselves to the nations, the exiles and citizens of Jerusalem assume the vine, Jerusalem, to surpass the value of all other trees. This is logical if its fruit is compared, for the grape was highly valued in the ancient Near East. Ezekiel pulls a fast one, however, by comparing its wood and thus logically inferring a negative conclusion. His conclusion compares to that of his first sermon (5:6-7). There, however, Jerusalem was more wicked than the nations because it rejected God's statutes; here, Jerusalem is worthless when compared to the nations because of its inherent natureperhaps its smallness (cf. Deut. 7:1, 17), or lack of military power (Deut. 9:1-2).

Elsewhere in the Bible, the vine branch designates the cultivated vine (Ezek. 15:2; Num. 13:23; Isa. 17:10, "slips"; Nah. 2:2; cf. John 15:2). Even though it is among the trees of the forest, it is not necessarily a wild vine.

Two further questions explore the vine's utility as a raw product:

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to make a general artifact, anything; and more specifically, to make a peg (15:3). Since the vine is not useful for making something, it is used as fuel (15:4a). Unlike moderns, the ancients wasted nothing: the ''branches are gathered [into bundles], thrown into the fire, and burned" (John 15:6).

The fourth question involves the burned branch (15:4b). In the leftover ashes would occasionally be a piece burned at both ends and charred in the middle. Such "charcoal" remains would be burned again. The interpretation explains the first and second burnings.

Some commentators have made an allegory of this parable by interpreting both ends of the branch in various ways. A popular interpretation is that one end is Israel and the other Judah, with Jerusalem charred in the middle. Since Ezekiel's own interpretation makes nothing of this (15:6-8), it is better to see it as an item arising from observing the physical reality rather than an allegorical point. Ezekiel's intent is to show that now the branch is less useful than beforecan it ever be used for anything! (15:5). Surely now its only use is for fuel.

Lesson: City Learns Nothing; Threat of Being Twice-Burned 15:6-8

The messenger formula, thus says the Lord God, follows the rhetorical questions (15:6a). [Messenger Formula, p. 380.] Like the parable itself, the authority of the interpretation is undergirded as the immediate word of God. In this context, the two verbs give (15:6b) may best be translated by the past tense: Like the . . . vine . . . which I have given to the fire . . . , so I have given the inhabitants of Jerusalem. In Hebrew the two verbs have the same past tense, but the NRSV translates the second as a "prophetic future." The divine mind is already made up, though the act is yet to be done.

To understand set my face (15:7), see note on 4:3. Ezekiel interprets not the two ends (cf. 15:4) but the two burnings. The first fire for Jerusalem to escape was the destruction when Ezekiel and king Jehoiachin were exiled in 597 B.C. Jerusalem will not escape the second fire, that of 587 (cf. Jer. 52:28-29).

In the recognition formula, the pronoun is changed from third person to second person, designating the persons addressed (they, 15:7abc; you, pl., 15:7d. [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] Ezekiel speaks throughout to the exiles. He has listened to their false prophets, who hope soon to return to Jerusalem (cf. Jer. 29). The two years which the prophet Hananiah prophesied are by now almost com-

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pleted; if his optimistic prophecy is correct, the exiles shall presently return home (Jer. 28:1-4). [Chronology, p. 377.] But when the second burning comes, the exiles will know that the God who threatens through the prophet Ezekiel is indeed the Lord of history. They will learn how false is the word of this patriot, Hananiah.

Ezekiel 15:8 summarizes the meaning of the parable: the judgment and its cause. Here the interpretation is close to the critique of 5:6. Not because of intrinsic worthlessness as wood, but because they have acted faithlessly in relation to their vocation, God will make the land desolate. The vinestock Jerusalem has no social usefulness except for burning, unless it accepts God's purpose for itto lead the nations as a new community.

The Text in Biblical Context

Vine and Vineyard as Metaphors of the Community of Faith

Vine and vineyard, occurring 114 times in the KJV, are important metaphors in the Bible. A metaphor is "the application of a word or phrase to an object or concept it does not literally denote, in order to suggest comparison with another object or concept, as in 'a mighty fortress is our God' " (Random: 840). In the NT, the metaphor of the vine's fruit enters centrally into the Gospel story in the narrative of the Last Supper: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (1 Cor. 11:25; cf. 10:16). This essay is a discussion of some of these related metaphors as they are used of the community of faith.

In Psalm 80:7-19 the metaphor of vine is extended to become a parable or allegory. God brought a vine out of Egypt and planted it in the land. It sent branches out to the sea (Mediterranean) and its shoots to the River (Euphrates). Since God has done all this, the concern then of the psalmist is the question, Why?

Why then have you broken down its walls,

so that all who pass along the way pluck its fruit? (Ps. 80:12)

There is no confession of sin in this psalm. The psalmist calls upon God to turn and restore Israel (80:14). As in the book of Job, the problem of evil is not the fault of the vine; instead, this problem is shrouded in the mystery of God. Ezekiel, however, never entertains the possibility that God might be the cause of evil.

Unlike the psalmist, Isaiah in his use of the metaphor is critical of the vine (5:1-7). His critique is directed not at the wood of the vine (as

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in Ezekiel) but at its fruit. Planted a choice vine and carefully cultivated, it yields "wild grapes." Here too is mystery, not about the character of God as in the book of Job, but in the illogic of Israel's history. Why, with such good prospects, did Israel's history take such an illogical turn?

Jeremiah, too, is critical of Israel, the vine:

I planted you as a choice vine,

from the purest stock.

How then did you turn degenerate

and become a wild vine? (Jer. 2:21)

Ezekiel's use of the metaphor heightens this negative emphasis by noting not its fruit but its wood, comparing it with the trees of the forest. In contrast to the nations, Jerusalem from its beginning is socially worthless, of value only for burning.

The prophet Nahum uses the metaphor to describe the plundering of the Assyrians. These looters have stripped Israel and ruined its vine branches (2:2, KJV).

The metaphor also serves to critique Israel's leaders. Jotham employs it for his parable of the trees, a comment on Israel's leadership (Judg. 9:7-15). The vine, asked by the trees to rule over them as king, refuses, arguing that it cannot desert its socially useful task of cheering gods and men, and "go to sway over the trees." Isaiah accuses elders and princes of devouring the vineyard, spoiling the poor, and crushing God's people (3:14-15). God complains through Jeremiah, "Many shepherds [kings] have destroyed my vineyard" (12:10-12).

In John 15 the metaphor is developed extensively. Jesus is the true vine, the Father is the gardener, and the disciples are the branches. The parable has its negative side and may be influenced by Ezekiel 15. The disciple who does not abide in Jesus "is thrown away like a branch and withers; such branches are gathered [into bundles], thrown into the fire, and burned" (John 15:6; cf. Ezek. 15:6).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Can the Church Be Socially Useful?

"The Sermon on the Mount," says Churchill, "is the last word in Christian ethics. . . . Still, it is not on these terms that ministers [i.e., statesmen] assume their responsibilities of guiding states" (Clarke: 63).

One may become so captivated by Ezekiel's powerful images that

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one misses his total picture, failing to see the forest because of the trees. As in most of his earlier prophecies, Ezekiel is concerned about Jerusalem (15:6; cf. 4:1; 5:5; 8:3; 12:10; 13:16; 14:21). He speaks to the exiles against cooperating with Jerusalem's foreign policy; that policy can only result in a second burning597 B.C. will be repeated in 587. Jerusalem is not to act like the nations because it does not have the same nature as the nations; it is a vine, not productive wood.

If the church is to be socially useful, it must be true to its nature. As Churchill has said, the Sermon on the Mount does not make a suitable constitution for a power state. The wine of the Sermon must shape its own structures, its own wineskins. Otherwise, both the new wine of the gospel and its covenant wineskins are lost (Matt. 9:17). The church becomes socially useless. Then its only value is "to be thrown out and trampled under foot" (Matt. 5:13).

To be true to one's identity in a forest of violent nations is not easy. A peace-church agency wrote about handling relief in Somalia: "The problem in Somalia is not so much availability of relief food as one of security and transport. We are reluctant to hire armed guards to protect our food and personnel" (MWR, Sept. 9, 1992:1-2).

But there was something that the church could do and still be true to its identity. During the cold war, Somalia had been flooded with weapons from Russia and the United States. The traditional system of adjudicating differences by clan elders was broken down, and warlords took over. What Somalia then needed was not more Western violence, but a new spirit and leadership to restructure mechanisms for establishing peace, a spirit and leadership demonstrated best by the gospel and the church.

For the Christian, refusal to participate in war and violence is not merely a right or privilege given by government, but a responsibility given by God. This responsibility is to lead society in the way of Jesus, the way of peace and reconciliation. The church can be socially useful only as it is true to its nature and accepts this responsibility.

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Story as Indictment:

Ezekiel 16:1-63

Preview

As the Lord's sentinel, Ezekiel has trumpeted his warnings by means of street theater, oracles with striking metaphors, and now, lest Israel miss the point, by story. His story's explicit sexual language and relational metaphors have offended both ancient and modern tastes. Before closing his book, however, one might consider the urgency of his message. To Ezekiel, the disarray of Israel's covenant relationship is even more shocking than the sexual metaphors. If one shares his urgency and values, a little language shock may be tolerated.

The book of Ezekiel includes three summaries of Israel's history, chapters 16, 20, and 23. Other short overviews are interspersed throughout the Bible (cf. TBC below). The underlying structure of these overviews is the covenant relation between God and people. In contrast, the structure of ancient Near Eastern history writing reflects the political power structure: a kingship list, or a political leader's annals recording national events year by year. This contrast in history writing, the one shaped by covenant structure, the other by political power structure, is significant for understanding this chapter. As a reflection of the two spiritual-social realities out of which they arise, the contrast is important for understanding the relation of synagogue and church to the political state throughout history, even into modern times.

Outline

Introduction, 16:1-2

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Story as Indictment, 16:3-34

16:3-5

Abandoned Baby Girl

16:6-14

Twice, the Lord Passes By

The First Passing, Election: Abraham to Egypt 16:6-7

The Second Passing, Covenant: Egypt to Solomon 16:8-14

16:8 Covenant as Marriage

16:9-14 Regal Estate

16:15-34

Jerusalem's Response: Harlotry

Cultic Harlotry: The First Commandment 16:15-22

Diplomatic Harlotry: Militarism 16:23-29

16:26-27 With the Egyptians

16:28 With the Assyrians

16:29 With Chaldea

Bizarre Nature of Jerusalem's Harlotry 16:30-34

Story as Legal Sentence, 16:35-52

16:35-43a

Indictment Restated and Sentence Passed

16:43b-52

Sentence Justified

Restoration, 16:53-63

16:53-58

Restored with Sodom and Samaria

16:59-63

Eternal Covenant

Explanatory Notes

The formula thus says the Lord God occurs in 16:3, 36, 59; says the Lord (God) occurs in 16:8, 14, 19, 23, 30, 43, 48, 58, 63. These formulas may be useful for outlining the chapter.

Introduction 16:1-2

Jerusalem is here arraigned by the Lord like a defendant in court (cf. 1 Sam. 12:7-18). The Lord commands Ezekiel to make known to the city its abominations (16:2). The NIV translates, Confront Jerusalem with her detestable practices. The word abominations "belongs to the vocabulary of the Deuteronomic polemic against idolatry" (cf. Deut. 7:25-26; 13:15; 17:4; Greenberg 1983:113). These offending practices are to be published by the prophet (16:3-34), after which sentence will be passed (16:35-52).

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Story as Indictment 16:3-34

Israel's story, couched in the figurative tale of a girl born and growing to maturity, is recounted to make a point about Israel's offenses.

16:3-5 Abandoned Baby Girl

God speaks to Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, much as one might speak of Ottawa, Washington, or Mexico City (16:3). Origin and birth have approximately the same meaning here, an example of Hebrew poetic parallelism. NIV translates, your ancestry and birth.

The population of the land of the Canaanites was composed of mixed peoples (cf. Gen. 10:15-19; IDB, 1:494-498). Though the Hittite empire existed to the north in Asia Minor before 1200 B.C., there apparently were migrations of some of these peoples southward, as evidenced by Uriah the Hittite and others (2 Sam. 11:3; cf. Gen. 23:10; IDB, 2:612-615). The Amorites, counted as a Canaanite clan in Genesis 10:15-17, were living west of Mesopotamia, in the area later known as Syria and Palestine (IDB, 1:115-116). Israel was called a "mixed crowd," with pagan roots (Exod. 12:38; Josh. 24:2).

This baby girl was not born into a normal caring family. Cutting the navel cord, washing with water, rubbing with salt, wrapping with clothsthese were practices of Palestinian midwives and have been observed among modern Arab peasants (16:4; cf. Luke 2:12; IDB, 3:523). The word translated thrown out is used of Ishmael, whom Hagar cast under a bush (16:5; Gen. 21:15). Child abandonment was customary even among the ancient Greeks, a custom rejected by Jews and Christians. The analogy implied in this storybetween human concern for the fate of a devalued female baby and the divine attention paid to the marginalized and devalued Hebrewsis important for this transformation of values.

16:6-14 Twice, the Lord Passes By

When was it that the Lord first passed by Jerusalem (16:6)? If Jerusalem as capital represents Israel, this may refer to the time of Israel's slavery in Egypt. An untied navel cord threatens the child's life. The command, Live, may refer to the exodus.

That the Lord passed by a second time may refer to the events at Sinai (15:8). Ezekiel regards the wedding and marriage as the closest human analogy with the Lord's covenant vows, as did Hosea: I

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pledged myself to you (cf. Hos. 2:14-20; 3:1). With covenant, Israel became the Lord's people: You became mine (cf. 16:59-62).

After making covenant, the Lord transformed Israel from a marginalized existence (bathed, clothed, adorned, 16:9-11) to a regal estate, fit to be a queen (16:13). Embroidered cloth may refer to the tabernacle (16:10; cf. Exod. 38:18). Jerusalem's fame spread among the nations; this likely points to events at the time of Solomon, the climax of Israel's "regal estate," kingship (16:14; 1 Kings 4).

Jerusalem's Response: Harlotry 16:15-34

Here Ezekiel details Jerusalem's two closely related types of harlotry: (1) cultic harlotry, Israel's proneness to idol worship; and (2) diplomatic harlotry, Israel's seduction to military alliances with Near Eastern empires.

16:15-22 Cultic Harlotry: The First Commandment

Ezekiel now declares Jerusalem's abominations, Israel's negative response to God's two acts of grace: election (16:6-7) and covenant-making (16:8-14). Jerusalem's fundamental fault is that she trusted (Heb.: batah *, 16:15) in her beauty rather than in the One who covenanted with her. The word trust occurs in this book elsewhere only in 33:13, where it is used of the righteous person: Yet if they trust in their righteousness and commit iniquity. . . . Committing iniquity is the inevitable consequence of self-trust.

The word for pass by occurs in its simple Hebrew form four times in this story: twice of the Lord's passing by (16:6, 8) and twice of any/every passer-by (16:15, 25). In response to the Lord's gracious acts when passing by, Jerusalem lavished her whorings on any passer-by. The metaphor whore or harlot (KJV), in its noun and verb forms, is used 21 times in this chapter. It highlights Israel's unfaithfulness to the covenant relationship, violating the first two commandments of the Decalogue.

The first of these acts with any passer-by has to do with cultic harlotry. Note the repetition of the language: you took (16:16, 17, 18, 20). The shrines were "high places," sites of pagan worship (16:16). The images of men (RSV) may be phallic symbols, or the idols themselves, to which Ezekiel refers as phalluses (16:17). Again, note the embroidered garments; made for tabernacle worship, they are here used for clothing idols (16:18; cf. 16:10). The gods were served in the

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ancient Near East by dressing and feeding them. The climax of this harlotrous worship was child sacrifice (16:20-21; cf. 2 Kings 16:3; 2 Chron. 33:6; 2 Kings 17:17; 23:10; Jer. 3:24; 7:31; 19:5; 32:35; Ezek. 20:31). [Worship, p. 382.]

Jerusalem trusted in her beauty and committed all these cultic abominations and whorings or harlotries (RSV) because she did not remember what life was like before the Lord passed by (16:22). To remember means to recall, to participate again in God's gracious saving act, and to respond by obedience to law.

16:23-29 Diplomatic Harlotry: Militarism

The first passer-by had to do with idolatrous worship, likened to playing the whore with male images, phallic symbols (16:15, 17). This second passer-by has to do with diplomatic harlotry, likened to Jerusalem's "spreading her legs" to any one who passed by (16:25, NIV; cf. KJV). Diplomatic harlotry was practiced with the Egyptians at the beginning and throughout Israel's history (16:26; cf. Isa. 30:1-5; 31:1-3), with the Assyrians (16:28; cf. Hosea 5:13), and with Chaldea in Ezekiel's own time (Babylon, 16:29). For more detail, see notes on chapter 23, where Ezekiel deals at length on the history of Israel's military diplomacy.

Cultic and diplomatic harlotry are closely related in this recital of Jerusalem's abominations. In the ancient Near East, the great gods were largely personified impersonal powers; they symbolized both economics and power politics. Here, worship of impersonal powers (16:15-22) culminates in trust of military powers (16:23-29; cf. Col. 2:15: Christ disarms principalities and powers).

The Lord punished Israel by giving it up to the Philistines; this likely refers to their threat to Israel in the time of Samuel and Saul (16:27; 1 Sam. 7:3-11; 31:1-13; 2 Chron. 28:18).

16:30-34 Bizarre Nature of Jerusalem's Harlotry

Unlike most harlots who receive gifts for their services, Jerusalem scorned payment (16:31). Like an adulterous wife, Jerusalem preferred strangers to her husband, its covenanted Lord (16:32). Strangers may be used either of those outside the family or of foreign nations. Bribing lovers refers to such actions as those of king Ahaz, who sent gifts to the Assyrian king with a request for help (16:33; 2 Kings 16:5-9).

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Story as Legal Sentence 16:35-52

16:35-43a Indictment Restated and Sentence Passed

The declaration of Jerusalem's abominations (16:2) is followed by a first therefore, introducing the Judge's indictment and sentence (16:35). The figures of harlotry are mixed with the realities of Israel's unfaithfulness: lust and nakedness with idols and blood of . . . children (16:36). Note the threefold because (three different words in Hebrew), reiterating the offense. Diplomatic harlotry is here cited first: with your lovers (16:36; cf. 16:33).

The second therefore introduces the Judge's sentence (16:37; cf. 16:35). It is expressed in terms of the law which prescribes stoning of an adulterer or adulteress (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:20-27; cf. Nah. 3:5, of Nineveh). The lovers are the military powers; the impersonal powers that Jerusalem worships will do her in. In the sight of many women refers to the onlooking nations or capital cities around Jerusalem (16:41). The sentence ends with a repetition of 16:22: You did not remember the days of your youth (16:43, NIV).

16:43b-52 Sentence Justified

To justify the sentence, Ezekiel expands on the mother-daughter image by use of a proverb (16:44-45; cf. 16:3). Jerusalem is true to her family pedigree, Like mother, like daughter (cf. "What Is This Proverb?" in TBC for 12:21-28). The sister image may be influenced by Jeremiah (3:6-14). Jerusalem did even worse than her sisters, Samaria and Sodom (16:46).

In the Genesis story, Sodom was condemned for its violation of the sexual code (Gen. 19:5-11). Here, however, Sodom's sin is a violation of biblical social ethics: arrogant and selfish living, no aid for the poor and needy (16:49; Jer. 22:16). [Economic Justice, p. 377.] Does Ezekiel have access to another tradition of Sodom, or does this reflect his analysis of Israel's sin which he projects onto Sodom? Daniel 4:27 also states that the non-Israelite society is not to be arrogant, but is to show mercy to the poor. All nations are accountable to God for the way they treat each other (cf. Amos 1).

Restoration 16:53-63

By daughters of Sodom and Samaria, Ezekiel refers to the small towns around them (16:46, 48, 53, 55). This is the first of two restorations in this book which involve people other than Israel (cf. 29:13-

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16). Since Sodom and Samaria are more righteous than Jerusalem, that city can only be restored in the midst of them (16:53, RSV). Jerusalem's sin gives comfort to them (consolation, 16:54; cf. 14:22, 23). As Sodom was a byword in Jerusalem, so Jerusalem has become a mockery to Aram (Syria; or Edom? cf. NRSV note), the Philistines, and other neighbors (16:56-58).

The first person singular pronoun I, used of the Lord, is emphatic (16:60). Though Jerusalem does not remember the days of her youth (16:22, 43), yet the Lord, in contrast to Jerusalem, will remember the covenant with Israel (16:60). Unlike Hosea, Ezekiel does not emphasize divine love for Israel but God's covenant faithfulness (cf. Hos. 11:1). This faithfulness, rather than Jerusalem's merit, is the basis for the eternal covenant. The NT teaches that this covenant continues to be fulfilled in the new covenant in Christ's blood. Paul discusses the participation of Israel in this covenant (Rom. 9-11).

God goes beyond covenant by giving Jerusalem political control of Sodom and Samaria (16:61). This action will awaken Jerusalem's memory and cause it shame (16:63). Repentance will come only after restoration.

This story ends with the recognition formula, the only such formula in the entire chapter: Jerusalem shall know that I am the Lord (16:62). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] Again, this acknowledgment will happen only after Jerusalem has experienced grace, after God will establish . . . covenant (16:62) and forgive Jerusalem for all that it has done (16:63). Thus far, this is the third time in the book that the acknowledgment formula is the result of grace rather than judgment (cf. 12:16; 14:22-23). Acknowledgment of the Lord happens when Jerusalem perceives that its story is consummated not by way of power alliances and revolt (16:26-29) but by obedience to law and prophetic word.

The Text in Biblical Context

God and People: A New Structure for History Writing

Historical summaries occur frequently in ancient Israel's writings (Deut. 6:21-23; 26:5-11; Josh. 24:2-13; Neh. 9:6-37; Ps. 78; Acts 7:2-53; 13:16-25; etc.). The book of Ezekiel has three such summaries: two are parabolic histories (chaps. 16, 23); one is a straightforward summary (chap. 20). All three are negative critiques of Israel's past and present. Two end with a portrayal of hope for the future (16:53-63; 20:40-49).

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Israel's summaries of history are structured by the covenant relationship of God and people. God is the political Leader who establishes relationship to Israel by election and covenant. Israel is to respond to God's saving leadership by obeying divine law. This law both establishes just communal relationships (Ezek. 16:49-50) and protects the theo-political structure of this justice by demanding allegiance only to the Lord (cf. ''The First Commandment" in TBC for 6:1-14). In his critical summaries, Ezekiel charges that Israel has been faithless to this covenant structure of the Lord's justice. Its story is one of a broken personal relationship between God and nation.

One can better understand the nature of these summaries by comparing them with other ancient Near Eastern historical writing. The oldest historical summary of which I am aware is the Sumerian King List (ANET: 265-266). This summary claims that Sumer was united by kingship, a gift of the gods from preflood times. Its structure is a succession of capital cities and kings, as kingship moved from city to city, down to the rule of the city of Ur, about 2000 B.C. Thus the unifying concept of extrabiblical Near Eastern history writing is the political power structure.

The Bible, on the other hand, challenges this understanding of political reality, replacing it with the unifying concept of covenant relationship between God and people, extending this concept to all humanity (Gen. 1-11). This unique perspective provides a faith structure so that Israel can continue to function as a people in the exile, even after its political power structure is broken. Though differing in some details, essentially Ezekiel's structure of God and people in the exile is no different from that of the pre-exilic prophets who preceded him. This concept also provides the structure for the Jesus movement and the NT church. Even today, it continues to challenge the political power interpretations of state-oriented journalists and politicians.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Ezekiel and the Believers Church

Two books form the basis for this reflection on the believers church and the text of Ezekiel: Hans Küng's Theology for the Third Millennium (1988) and Donald Durnbaugh's The Believers' Church (1968). The first is written by a Catholic theologian who has suffered opposition for his message of reform. The second is written by a historian of the Church of the Brethren.

The two books, though quite different, converge in Küng's state-

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ment: "There is no free church without a free theology." Though Küng values the tradition of his church with its changes across two millennia, he believes that this tradition must be submitted to the prime authority of the Bible. His is a Bible, however, which witnesses not to itself but to God, who is met in the story of Israel, and above all, in the gospel of Jesus Christ. This gospel must be free of church dogma and must be reexamined and stated truthfully with all the tools that historical and critical exegesis can offer. He champions an ecumenical theology, a theology which speaks to our postmodern worlda pluralistic world with different centers of authorityin the spirit and authority of the NT gospel.

The convergence is apparent from Durnbaugh's side by his list of the marks of the believers church: discipleship, belief in the fall of the church, restitution or return to the NT church, church discipline, missions and evangelism, separation of church and state (selective involvement by the church in political affairs), mutual aid and service, and ecumenical concern. The church's fall and restitution make it necessary to place the prime authority of the Bible above church traditionabove dogmatic theology, church bureaucracy, and the mores of the people. Ecumenical concern is shown by openness to all who follow the Jesus way, and by conversation and witness to those who do not. On these points, Küng and Durnbaugh have a measure of convergence, though Küng seems unaware of Durnbaugh's tradition.

Ezekiel 16 reveals that the free-church tradition has roots deep within the faith of ancient Israel. Here the authority of God is proclaimed by a recital of Israel's history rather than only by statements of propositional dogma. The fall of the community of faith is Ezekiel's emphasis. Unlike Hosea, Jeremiah, and the believers church, Ezekiel is not a "restorationist" who returns to beginnings for a pristine community; nevertheless, he does return to the beginnings for the two times that God "passed by" to save Israel: salvation at the exodus and covenant-making at Sinai (16:6, 8). Authority is found exclusively in the person of God, who reveals the divine self in these primal acts for Israel. Ezekiel's position on "separation of church and state" shines through in his use of the covenant paradigm for his understanding of history. It also shows in his critique of Israel's worship of power gods and its whoredom with the military empires of Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon. Ezekiel's ecumenical concern is perceived in the restoration of the fortunes of Sodom and Samaria along with those of Jerusalem.

One may wonder why Ezekiel, adjusting Israel's institutions to the

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exile, with temple and kingship left behind, proclaims a message not essentially different from Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Hosea, the pre-exilic prophets of the time of kingship. The answer is clear: all these prophets proclaimed the structure of God and people, rather than Near Eastern power structures, as fundamental to Israel's communal life. They called Israel's kingship to bow to this covenant structure. Jesus adopts this structure by proclaiming that he is present among the two or three who are gathered in his name (Matt. 18:20).

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Two Sprigs, a Vine, and Three Gardeners:

Ezekiel 17:1-24

Preview

This third portion of the judgment oracles against Israel is notable for its extended images (Ezek. 15-20; cf. OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). First, Jerusalem is berated as a worthless vine, of value only for fuel (chap. 15); then, the city's story is that of a faithless bridefrom its birth as a foundling thrown out to die, to its betrothal and wedding as a queenly bride, and its threatened death as a harlot by executioners (chap. 16).

Now, zeroing in on Jerusalem's government, Ezekiel employs a complex allegory of three gardeners. The first, an eagle-like emperor, carries off the city's spriglike king, planting in his place a lowly vine, a subject king. The second gardener, another eaglelike emperor, successfully competes for the allegiance of this vine; the vine is then threatened with having its roots pulled up by the first gardener. In the future, a third Gardener will plant a new government upon the lofty mountain of Israel, a sprig which will grow into a noble cedar. All the trees of the field will then acknowledge this third Emperor as the only Gardener of the world's governmentswho certainly does bring low the high tree, make high the low tree, dry up the green tree, and make the dry tree flourish (17:24).

Outline

Introduction, an Allegory, 17:1-2

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Allegory of Two Jealous Gardeners, 17:3-10

17:3-6

The First Gardener (an Eagle)

17:7-8

The Second Gardener (an Eagle)

17:9-10

Four Rhetorical Questions

The Allegory Interpreted, 17:11-21

17:11-18

Zedekiah Breaks Babylon's Covenant; Results

17:19-21

Zedekiah Breaks the Lord's Covenant; Results

The Authentic Gardener, 17:22-24

Explanatory Notes

A riddle (Heb.: hidah *; cf. Judg. 14:12-19) hides the truth; an allegory (Heb.: masal*, 17:2) reveals it. The same Hebrew word (masal) is used of a proverb, a short pithy statement. However, an allegory is a "representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning through concrete or material forms," a "figurative treatment of one subject under the guise of another" (Random: 36; cf. "What Is This Proverb?" in TBC for 12:21-28). The KJV translates the word as ''parable," "a short allegorical story designed to convey a truth or moral lesson" (Random: 963). The particular form of this allegory is a fable: animals and plants play the part of human beings.

Allegory of Two Jealous Gardeners (Eagles) 17:3-10

In the book of Ezekiel, the prophet takes on his government's foreign policy in four texts, each protesting king Zedekiah's revolt against Nebuchadnezzar (12:1-16; 17:1-24; 19:1-14; 21:18-27). The first and last are two pantomimes, of Zedekiah's anticipated defeat (12:1-16) and of the sword's march from Babylon to Jerusalem (21:18-27). The third text is a funeral dirge, celebrating the end of Israel's government (19:1-14).

This second text, chapter 17, is an allegory of three exclusive gardeners, emperors who cultivate and decide the destiny of nations. King Zedekiah has opted out of his vassal treaty with the first gardener, Nebuchadnezzar, in favor of a second gardener, Pharaoh of Egypt; he is now threatened with the consequences of his act.

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17:3-6 The First Gardener (an Eagle)

The eagles and cedars refer not immediately to objects in nature but to Near Eastern myth as represented by art. In ancient Assyrian art, two mixed creatures with a human body and an eagle head are portrayed, each as a gardener caring for a palm tree which stands between them (cf. Lang, 1981:42-43). The eagle is here a symbol of an emperor (17:3). Plumage of many colors and varied-colored clothing designates royalty and elite persons (cf. Ps. 45:12-15). Lebanon with its cedar(s) represents the community of nations (cf. Isa. 10:33-34). The eagle, personifying the Babylonian emperor as gardener, carried the topmost shoot of the cedar to a city of merchants, Babylon (17:4). This shoot represents king Jehoiachin, brought to Babylon with Ezekiel and other exiles in 597 B.C. (1:1-3; 2 Kings 24-25).

In a second act, this eagle, disposing of nations as he wills, took a seed (or seedling?) from the land of Judah and placed it in fertile soil; Nebuchadnezzar made Zedekiah king (17:5; cf. 2 Kings 24:17). The vine spreading out, but low, represents a client state in contrast to a cedar, which is a symbol of a sovereign power (17:6, 3).

17:7-8 The Second Gardener (an Eagle)

A second great eagle interferes (17:7). This may have been Psamtik II, a new Pharaoh of Egypt who in 592 B.C. made a tour of Palestine and Phoenicia (Greenberg, 1987:304-308). The vine responds eagerly to this interference and becomes dependent on Egypt, even though Nebuchadnezzar already has planted it in good soil by abundant waters (17:8, NIV/RSV).

17:9-10 Four Rhetorical Questions

The allegory concludes with several rhetorical questions. By repetition, they underline the futility of double-dealing with the Egyptian gardner: (1) Will it prosper? (2) Will he not pull up its roots? (17:9). (3) Will it thrive? (4) Will it not utterly wither? (17:10).

Likely Ezekiel is hoping to change Zedekiah's mind about his foolish policy of aligning himself with Egypt. If he speaks this in 592591 B.C., he may be succeeding for the moment; not until 589 did Zedekiah rely on Egypt and actually rebel against Nebuchadnezzar. [Chronology, p. 377.] But perhaps Ezekiel has given up on Jerusalem and only hopes that he might deter the exiles from becoming in-

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volved with the rebellion. The east wind, a hot, devastating wind in the Near East, represents the armies of Nebuchadnezzar.

The Allegory Interpreted 17:11-21

Although the allegory has already been quite well interpreted by the four rhetorical questions (17:9-10), Ezekiel is to drive home its point by another question and a straightforward interpretation: Do you not know what these things mean? Tell them (17:12).

17:11-18 Zedekiah Breaks Babylon's Covenant; Results

Ezekiel well understands the Near Eastern politics of the client state, a relationship established by a covenant and oath (17:13). By political arrangement, Zedekiah, king of Israel, was a vassal, subject through treaty to Nebuchadnezzar. Such vassal covenants or treaties have been unearthed in Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Syria (cf. ANET: 199-206; 531-541). Here is the only biblical reference juxtaposing one of these international covenants with the covenant between the Lord and Israel (17:19). This is an important comparison since the biblical covenant between God and Israel has much the same pattern as that between emperor and vassal in the time of Moses (Exod. 19-24).

The king taken to Babylon in the first deportation, 597 B.C., is Jehoiachin, enthroned in Jerusalem for only three months (17:12; cf. 2 Kings 24:8-15). [Kings of Judah, p. 380.] The deportation of the chief men, including the priest Ezekiel, was designed to weaken the state (17:13; cf. 2 Kings 24:14-16). The one of the royal offspring with whom Nebuchadnezzar made covenant and placed under oath is Zedekiah, uncle of Jehoiachin and son of Josiah and Hamutal (17:13; cf. 2 Kings 24:18). The humble kingdom, represented by the vine in the allegory, is a client state, Israel; its existence depends upon Israel keeping its covenant with Babylon (17:14; cf. 17:6).

King Zedekiah's key act of the allegory is stated in this interpretation: But he rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar by sending ambassadors to Egypt, that they might give him horses and a large army (17:15, RSV; cf. Isa. 30:1-5; 31:1-3). Ezekiel's three rhetorical questions follow in 17:15, again driving home his point by indicating the consequences of Zedekiah's policy (cf. 17:9-10). This is one of the few times that Ezekiel deals strictly with human politics.

Under oath, the Lord answers his own three questions with three

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statements: As I live, says the Lord God . . . (17:16-18). The second statement, predicting that Pharaoh will not help, may be based on Egypt's reputation for unreliability (17:17; cf. Isa. 36:6). Jeremiah later makes a similar prophecy when Pharaoh Apries (589-570 B.C.), successor to Pharaoh Psamtik II (Psammetichos, 595-589 B.C.), came to Jerusalem's help (Jer. 37:5-10; Greenberg 1967:304-308).

17:19-21 Zedekiah Breaks the Lord's Covenant; Results

After stating what will happen to Zedekiah as the political consequence of violating his human covenant with Nebuchadnezzar, the Lord states what will happen to him for breaking divine covenant: I will surely return upon his head my oath, . . . and my covenant (17:19; cf. Jer. 34:8-22, another example of Zedekiah breaking faith). How does Ezekiel here present the relationship between Nebuchadnezzar's covenant with Israel and the Lord's covenant with Israel? With most modern interpreters, Zimmerli thinks that Ezekiel identifies human covenant with divine covenant; they are one and the same (Zimmerli, 1979:365-366). Greenberg contends, however, that the two covenants are not identified here: the covenants represent two planes, human and divine (Greenberg 1983:318-323). After saying what will happen on the purely human level (17:16-18), the Lord states what will happen on the divine level.

The climax of Ezekiel's argument is indicated by therefore, which here may signify emphasis (17:19; cf. Hos. 2:14). It introduces the breaking of the Lord's covenant: my oath, . . . my covenant. The indictment of 17:15, sending ambassadors to Egypt, to obtain horses and a large army, violates both Nebuchadnezzar's covenant with Zedekiah and the Lord's covenant with Israel, but in different ways. It violates human covenant by switching allegiance from one military power to another; it violates divine covenant by switching from allegiance and trust in God to integrating with the military culture of the Near East.

Trust in military power by looking to Egypt for political salvation is treason against the Lord (17:20; cf. 16:26; 23:3, 19-21). Israel indeed needs to be free from the oppressive character of the Babylonian vassal treaty; but a treaty with Egypt and reliance upon the sword will only further entangle Israel with the oppressive web of Near Eastern power politics, ending in death. Israel can hope for freedom only by faithfulness to the Lord's covenant as the basis for its own law and life, and by seeking the welfare of the city to which God sends them in exile (cf. Ezek. 18; Jer. 29:7).

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The Authentic Gardener 17:22-24

The goal of history is not achieved by military politics. The great eagles may win wars, but they do not win the peace. The Lord is the only legitimate Gardener of Israel and the nations: I myself (in contrast to the great eagle, 17:3-5) will take a sprig. The divine pronoun dominates this segment, as reflected in the translations; in Hebrew, the emphatic pronoun occurs four times (I myself, 17:22be; I am the Lord; I the Lord, 17:24bf).

The sprig, a messiahlike figure, is not a lowly vine, client of a human sovereign (cf. 17:6), but a cedar, client of the Lord. The high and lofty mountain compares to the vision of Isaiah 2:2. Fruit produced by the noble cedar illustrates again that this allegory is oriented not immediately to nature but chiefly to Near Eastern mythic concepts (17:23). Birds of every sort (RSV) may suggest the greatness of the world tree (cf. Matt. 13:32).

This resolution of history is universal in its scope: all the trees of the field (17:24). But the victory is not one of empire for Israel; like Isaiah 2:1-4, this text does not portray Israel as ruler over the nations. Instead, the goal is that the nations acknowledge Israel's Lord as the only true Gardener in the arena of world history. [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

The proverb, 17:24, borrows from the imagery of the allegory: the Lord, rather than the first great eagle, will bring low the high tree, the arrogant son of David who, in search for security, violates the Lord's covenant (cf. 17:3, 6). But this same Lord will elevate again this low tree, a scion of the Davidic dynasty, and will make the dry tree flourish. The survivors, . . . scattered to every wind (17:21), will again become a people. This messiahlike figure will inaugurate an internationalism led not by a martial imperialist but by an acknowledged moral and spiritual exemplar.

The Text in Biblical Context

Out of the Ashes, the Messianic Vision

The title Messiah occurs only in later Jewish literature and in the NT (cf. Matt. 2:2). Nevertheless, OT texts often affirm the concept of an ideal political leader whom God will raise up from the ashes of Israel's failed kingship. In the book of Ezekiel, the vision of 17:22-24 arises out of a prophecy of the failure of king Zedekiah (17:1-21). The messianic promise of 34:20-31 is placed at the end of a critique of Israel's kingship as a whole (34:1-24). The final messianic vision of

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the book, 37:21-28, follows Ezekiel's vision of the resurrected community, a community which arises out of the dry bones of the old failure (37:1-14).

Ezekiel is heir both to Isaiah and Jeremiah in this vision of a future king who will arise out of the ashes of failure. Isaiah 11:1-9 has been memorialized by Edward Hicks, a Quaker preacher who has painted over a hundred versions of "The Peaceable Kingdom." The vision is placed within the context of Isaiah's conflict with the policy of the Davidic king (Hezekiah or Ahaz). For this new order of "The Peaceable Kingdom," Isaiah rejected the entire Davidic dynasty, returning to the stump of Jesse for a new beginning (11:1). The new beginning will involve the entire earth:

For the earth will be full of the knowledge of the Lord

as the waters cover the sea. (Isa. 11:9)

Jeremiah's vision of a righteous Branch for David also arises from a critique of Israelite kingship (Jer. 21:1123:7). This king will administer, not the hierarchical structures of Near Eastern justice (22:13-17), but the egalitarian justice of the Lord. The name of the Branch will be Zedekiah's name, with components reversed: "The Lord is our righteousness" (23:6, Heb.: Yahweh sidqenu *; cf. sidqiyahu*, Zedekiah, "Yah[weh] is righteousness").

Mesopotamian power myths show the king as representing on earth the "Enlil function," the role of the god Enlil, who supposedly exercised power politics in the Mesopotamian divine-human state (ANET: 164). Ezekiel knows enough about Near Eastern power politics to understand that, even on this level, Zedekiah's political policy will not work (17:15-18). But Ezekiel's climactic argument is on quite a different level. Zedekiah is sending ambassadors to Egypt, in order that they might give him horses and a large army. This is a violation not merely of the power covenant with Nebuchadnezzar but more importantly of Israel's covenant of personal relationship with God.

Israel's covenant community is based not upon the threat of military politics, but upon the Lord's gracious deliverance from these military powers, beginning with Egypt. To integrate with these powers by diplomatic action is to violate the trust upon which Israel's covenant is based (17:19-21; see notes on 16:23-29; 23:1-49). Israel was permitted to have a "king," but kingship was not to be like that of other nations in the Near East. The king must be subject to the Sinai covenant, based on trust in the Lord. This is the essential issue in the con-

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flict of the prophetic party with kingship, from Samuel to Jesus (1 Sam. 8-12; Mark 10:42-45).

One should understand the messiahship of Jesus not as a spiritualizing of kingship and its politics but as rooted in this negative critique of Near Eastern kingship. Jesus transformed kingship into a new kind of leadership. Twice in the Gospel of Mark, Jesus accepts the title of Messiah (8:29-33; 14:61-65; see TBC for Ezek. 34:1-31). Each time, the office is transformed by association not with military power but with the cross.

In Matthew, Luke, and John, Jesus rejects the power-oriented leadership of this world (Matt. 4:8-10; Luke 4:5-8; John 6:15). In Matthew, his law is the Sermon on the Mount. In John, his crown is made of thorns and his throne is a cross (chap. 19). At Pentecost, Peter declares that this Jesus whom the people had crucified, God has made both Lord and Messiah (Acts 2:36). The root of the concept of Jesus as Messiah is not Near Eastern kingship as adopted by Israel, but the prophetic Israelite tradition against kingship, which insists on its transformation.

The Text in the Life of the Church

The Work of the Third Gardener

A 500-page political history of the ancient Near East, from prehistoric times to the conquest of Alexander the Great, gives eleven pages to the story and contribution of Israel (Scharff). The bulk of its pages are devoted to the rise and fall of the great empires and their contributions: Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. This corresponds quite well with the picture that Ezekiel draws in chapter 17. The great eagles are the present gardeners of the nations. The work of the Third Gardener is relegated mainly to the future.

Chapter 17 documents that Ezekiel is quite capable of this kind of "secular" thinking. Yet elsewhere in his book, the Lord God of Israel dominates not only the future but also the present scene. Ezekiel would agree with Isaiah 40:15:

Even the nations are like a drop from a bucket,

and are accounted as dust on the scales.

Thus one can look at history in ways other than just power politics. For example, if one were to ask about the development of human rights, the 500-page history book might look quite different. In the first part of the twentieth century, Ernst Troeltsch wrote that the

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parent of modern human rights was not church Protestantism but Anabaptism and Spiritualism, which the magisterial Reformation hated and drove out into the new world. He claimed, "The Protestant theory of the state is in both [Lutheranism and Calvinism] based on that very same Christian 'Law of Nature' which, in the Middle Ages, was compounded out of Stoicism, Aristotle, and the Bible" (Troeltsch: 107).

Troeltsch insisted that human rights are not to be confused with democracy, which can be as absolutist as a monarchy, leaving no space for the dissenter and minority opinion. By insisting on separation of church and state even at the cost of martyrdom, Anabaptism limited the powers of the statethough no one would deny that there were other factors which contributed to modern human rights. Even Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and Persia might deserve a few paragraphs in such a history. But the bulk of the story would be the NT and prophetic antecedents in Israel, which the Anabaptists and others insisted on emulating.

We wait for the perfect covenant community of the future, when all will be united under the Messiah. Meanwhile, the church is called to accept the work of the Third Gardener even now: by setting up alternative structures of mutual aid, education, and service, and by the congregation itself being an alternative covenant structure where the will of God is discovered and made known throughout the land. This will limit the powers of the state and may even give direction to the government. And, following the counsel of Ezekiel, the church should at all times give cooperation to the state in pursuit of legitimate and limited objectives.

Many of the world's problems are due not merely to the malfunction of the state but to the malfunction of the church. The church should proclaim in word and deed the gospel, the good news of the Messiah, the sprig which God has planted upon a high and lofty mountain (Ezek 17:22). For there is salvation in no other (Acts 4:12).

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Turn and Live!:

Ezekiel 18:1-32

Preview

Sandwiched between two chapters which pronounce death, chapter 18 is a call to life. Sending ambassadors to Egypt for military horses and a large army is under a double sentence: Nebuchadnezzar's sentence of death upon Zedekiah for breaking allegiance to the vassal covenant, and God's sentence of death for breaking allegiance and trust in the Lord's covenant (chap. 17). Such suicidal policy leads to a funeral dirge, not only for Zedekiah but for all the kings of Israel: this means the end of Jerusalem's government (chap. 19). In the thick of battle against such a suicidal policy, Ezekiel trumpets a call: Turn and live! (18:32).

This call to life is strategically placed, not only between these two chapters, but in the total structure of the book. The call is heralded in three related texts. The first is placed at the beginning of the judgment oracles against Israel (3:16-21). The last is placed at the end of the judgment oracles against the nations (33:1-21). Thus, at beginning, end, and middle of his judgment oracles (18:1-32), Ezekiel trumpets this call to life.

Outline

Revelation Formula, 18:1

Corporate Retribution Denied: Three Generations, 18:2-20

18:2-18 People's Proverb Refuted: One Who Sins Shall Die

The First Generation 18:5-9

The Second and Third Generation 18:10-18

18:19-20 Objection Refuted: One Who Sins Shall Die

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Retribution for Past Denied: Power of Ethical Decision, 18:21-29

Conclusion: Turn and Live! 18:30-32

Explanatory Notes

In this chapter, the mood is one of argument (cf. Mal. 1). The people, Ezekiel's audience, have staked out a position, one buttressed by experience and crystallized in a proverb. Ezekiel takes on the debate with ammunition of a different sort: teaching about God's ways and the importance of human response.

Corporate Retribution Denied: Three Generations, 18:2-20

18:2-18 People's Proverb Refuted: One Who Sins Shall Die

Unlike most of his prophecies, Ezekiel here is not addressed and commanded to speak (cf. 16:2; 17:2). Instead, he is included among his hearers: What do you [pl.] mean? A proverb, as the word is used here, is a short pithy statement spoken by the people to express a general truth (18:2; "What Is This Proverb?" in TBC for 12:21-28). This proverb, current in Judah and among the exiles, involves the land of Israel (cf. Jer. 31:29-30).

According to the Talmud, eating sour or unripe grapes was a widespread practice even though the effect was not good (Greenberg, 1983:328; cf. Prov. 10:26). The Targum, an ancient Aramaic paraphrase of the Hebrew, omits the proverb but gives its meaning: "The fathers sin, the children suffer" (Zimmerli, 1979:370).

The soul animates the body (18:4, NIV; Gen. 2:7); it is the person from the perspective of one's vital life force. God's right of ownership takes precedence over all human rights, even the right to life: Every living soul belongs to me (NIV). The Lord therefore has the right to determine responsibility: the person who sins . . . shall die.

The Decalogue states that the Lord punishes "children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and fourth generation" (Deut. 5:9). Challenging this, Ezekiel gives a theoretical example of three generations: father (18:5-9), child (18:10-13), grandchild (18:14-18; cf. TBC below). He presents his cases in an impersonal legal style, probably a skill which he learned as a priest (cf. 14:4-10).

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The First Generation 18:5-9

Ezekiel defines a righteous person as one who does what is lawful and right (18:5). Like Jesus, who later cited the Decalogue (Mark 10:19), Ezekiel lists these fundamental laws, a list repeated for each generation. The list includes both cultic and moral law. Basic cultic laws are: to reject the mountains, pagan places of worship (18:6a, 11b, 15a), and the worship of idols (18:6b, 12de, 15b). In biblical lists, such laws regulating the divine-human relationship are usually stated first because they deal with the structure of justice. They provide the only foundation for just interhuman laws (cf. Exod. 20:3-6). The moral type of law, loyalty to neighbor, grows out of loyalty to God (cf. Matt. 22:39).

The expression approach a woman is a euphemism for sexual intercourse (18:6). It may be significant that this demand to respect a woman's fertility cycle (presumably that of one's wife) is placed between the law against adultery, which protects family structure, and the law against oppression, which protects equality (18:7a). Sacral law protected certain sexual rights of women within the family (cf. Exod. 21:10).

By number of laws cited, Ezekiel stresses economic justice (18:7-8). These laws are paralleled elsewhere in the OT: do not oppress the resident alien (Exod. 22:21); restore the debtor's pledge (22:26); no robbery and plunder (Lev. 6:4); do not charge interest to the poor (Exod. 22:25); give to the poor, hungry, and naked (Deut. 15). [Economic Justice, p. 377.]

The Hebrew word translated justice (mispat *) may be rendered variously in different contexts, as demonstrated in this chapter: lawful (18:5, 19, 21, 27), ordinances (18:9, 17), justice (18:8). Here it may be translated, One who does justice ''arbitrates faithfully between persons" (Greenberg, 1983:325). As with law, Israel's justice was within the context of its covenanted relationship with God. In a case of violated relationships, God's concern as Creator and Judge is to restore a situation which promotes "equity and harmony (salom*) in a community" (ABD, 3:1128). This justice includes a special concern for the oppressed and basic human rights for each individual (cf. Ps. 146). On the human level, justice is to be the concern not merely of the king but of every righteous person. [Economic Justice, p. 377.]

The righteous person not only does the law but walks in the Lord's statutes (18:9, RSV) rather than in one's own way, or in the ordinances of the nations (cf. Ezek. 5:7; Gen. 18:19). Doing the Lord's will is a matter of commitment to a way of life rather than merely a le-

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galistic observance of details (cf. Gen. 18:19; Acts 9:2; 19:23); this may explain the varied nature of Ezekiel's three lists.

To live is to be a member of the Lord's community, in communion with God and under divine leadership (18:9). The exiles' way into the future could be assured not by looking back to Jerusalem but by voluntarily adopting the Lord's structures of social justice in Babylon. In the desperate straits of Ezekiel's day, careful observance of law rather than selfish individualism was literally a matter of life or death for Israel.

The Second and Third Generation 18:10-18

In the statement about the second and third generation, the word beget betrays the influence of the priestly genealogical list (18:10, 14, KJV; cf. Gen. 5). The child who does the opposite of the parent cannot be saved by the parent's righteousness (18:10-13; cf. 14:12-20; Jer. 15:1). This legal list is not precisely the same as the first, but includes being violent and murdering (18:10; cf. 7:22). The main point of Ezekiel's argument, however, is the statement about the third generation (18:14-18): the grandchild who is righteous is not subject to the fate of the wicked parent. The law according to Ezekiel contravenes the fatalistic proverb of the people concerning the land of Israel (18:2).

18:19-20 Objection Refuted: One Who Sins Shall Die

Ezekiel's disputation concerning the three generations ends with one last objection by his hearers (18:19). This occasions a repeat of the key point of the argument: The person who sins shall die (18:20; cf. 18:4). This inclusio provides an envelope for the entire argument and makes clear what this segment is about. [Inclusio, p. 379.]

Retribution for Past Denied: Power of Ethical Decision 18:21-29

The saying of the people to which this is a response, lacking here, is included in 33:10: Our transgressions and our sins weigh upon us, and we waste away because of them; how then can we live? Here the people accept their responsibility. But they complain that their past weighs them down, that judgment is inevitable. The key to the solution of their complaint is the word turn (Heb.: sub *, 18:21). It occurs

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thirteen times in the chapter, translated as: restore(s) (18:7, 12), withholds (18:8, 17), turn (in moral-spiritual sense: 18:21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32), and repent (18:30). In a moral-spiritual sense, turn means to change course, to move away from one's sins toward what is lawful and right (18:21, 27).

When transgressions are not remembered, they are forgiven, not taken account of (18:22; cf. Ps. 25:7; Jer. 31:34).

Just as the inclusio states the theme which forms the envelope of the first segment (18:4, 20), this inclusio states the theme which forms the envelope of the second segment (18:23, 32). [Inclusio, p. 379.] As in 18:2 and 19, Ezekiel again refers to the sayings of the people, this time to sum up his argument (18:25). Here the fairness of the way of the Lord and the ways of Israel are debated (18:25, 29, a third inclusio!). The two ways are incompatible, an incompatibility which has to do with the concept of justice. This concern fits with Ezekiel's use of a legal style of writing throughout chapter 18 (cf. notes on 18:5-9).

Conclusion: Turn and Live! 18:30-32

This conclusion unites the two concerns of the above segments, the weight of parental sins and the weight of one's own sins. Freed from the weight of both, Israel is called to repent (18:30). Although the covenant is corporate in that it involves the total community of Israel, yet it is individuated in that it calls each person to decision: Therefore I will judge you [pl.], O house of Israel, every one according to his [sing.] ways (18:30, RSV; cf. Jer. 18:11, KJV). Both repent and turn are from the same Hebrew root and are repeated for emphasis (sub *, 18:30). Jeremiah says that repentance is the goal of all prophecy (25:4-6).

If elsewhere Ezekiel often seems fatalistic about human possibilities, he is at the opposite extreme here: Repent, turn, cast away . . . transgressions, get yourselves a new heart and a new spirit! (18:3031). This contrasts with the Lord's promise to give Israel a new heart and spirit (11:19; 36:26). New heart is strictly Ezekiel's vocabulary. It is found nowhere else in the Bible. Essentially, it means a new, reconciled will, a will to do God's will.

I have no pleasure in the death of anyone is as close as Ezekiel comes to acknowledging the pathos and love of God (18:32; cf. 18:23; 33:11; 2 Pet. 3:9; "The Prophet's Pathos" in TBC for 24:1-27).

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The Text in Biblical Context

Kept Free by the Law

In the Bible one is not freed from the law. Rather, one is freed from the curse of the law by obedience to the law. Ezekiel says that to repent and to embrace the law is to live. To reject the law, to be a law unto one's self, is to die. A person is freed by God from the curse of the sin of past generations, even from the past of one's own life, so that one might strike out on a new course of obedience to law, and live.

The Bible cannot be understood without grasping its law. It includes law collections: the covenant code (Exod. 20:2223:33), holiness code (Lev. 16-26); Deuteronomic code (Deut. 1226, 28), and priestly code (scattered through Exodus to Numbers). There are also law summaries: the Decalogue (Exod. 20:2-17), the cultic commandments (Exod. 34:17-26), and the dodecalogue (12 curses/laws of Deut. 27:11-26). Then there are temple and prophetic legal summaries (such as Ps. 15; 24:3-4; Isa. 33:15; Ezek. 18:6-9; Hos. 4:1-3; cf. Matt. 22:37-40; Mark 10:19). Besides these, many narratives and prophetic oracles deal with matters of law (1 Kings 21; Ezek. 5:5-7).

Moses initiated a revolution in law which makes it a life-giving instrument (cf. Deut. 30:19-20). Three characteristics of law give to it this life-giving force.

1. Biblical law is covenant law, arising out of the covenant relationship between God and people. For example, in the book of Exodus, the Decalogue and the covenant code (Exod. 2023) are preceded and followed by a statement of covenant (Exod. 19:4-6; 24:3-8). The statement which precedes these laws begins with God's word of grace, deliverance from Egypt (19:4). Israel is to respond by obeying and keeping the law and covenant (19:5). The statement continues by stating the purpose of law: Israel is to be a kingdom of priests, a holy nation, a community which leads the nations in right living and in relation to God (19:6).

The statement following the covenant code describes the ratifying of the covenant (24:3-8). An altar was built, and sacrifices of burnt offerings and of well-being were made (24:5). The offering of wellbeing was a communion offering, in which the people ate and drank before God. The covenant is a democratic one in which all the people promised twice to do "all the words that the Lord has spoken" (24:3, 7). The second promise is placed within a ceremony of blood, in which Moses throws half the blood upon the altar and half upon the people (24:6, 8). This is the "blood of the covenant" which Jesus later

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identified and contrasted with the communion cup, "the new covenant in my blood" (1 Cor. 11:25).

This envelope of covenant around Sinai law contrasts with Mesopotamian law codes, wedded to the coercive structures of kingship. For example, Hammurabi's law is enveloped within a prologue and epilogue which presents Hammurabi as "king of justice," chosen by the gods to enforce the law by his armies, supported by the curses of the gods upon the disobedient (ANET: 164-165, 177-180).

2. A second characteristic of biblical law is the motive clause. This is illustrated in the Decalogue, where two motive clauses form an envelope about the first two commandments (Exod. 20:2, 5b-6). Verse 2 tells of God's act of grace, how God freed Israel from state slavery. This indicates the kind of authority with which Israel has to do; Israel can continue in this freedom only if it worships exclusively this freedom-giving God (20:3).

Exodus 20:5b-6 states the principle of retribution to the third and fourth generations, the principle which Ezekiel challenges. The Decalogue limits retribution to the present family social unit, for the ancient family was made up of three or four generations. This limitation was not flatly contradicted by Ezekiel, but was even further restricted by him.

Such a principle of limitation may be illustrated by the cry of the crowd who stood before Pilate: "His blood be on us and on our children!" (Matt. 27:25). The church has sometimes used this to justify persecution of the Jews throughout the Christian era, that it is God's punishment for their bloody deed which they had taken upon themselves. But by doing this, the church violates not only Ezekiel's limitation (Ezek. 18) and Jesus' express forgiveness (Luke 23:34), but also the Decalogue's limitation of retribution to three or four generations.

The Decalogue's limitation of retribution is balanced out with a statement of the Lord's infinite grace: the Lord is "showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments" (Exod. 20:6). Retribution to three or four generations; love to infinity! This Love says, The person who sins shall die. Repent, turn away from sins, cast away transgressions, and get yourselves a new heart and a new spirit! Why will you die, O house of Israel? For I have no pleasure in the death of anyone! (Ezek. 18:4, 20, 30-32, adapted).

Jesus proclaims this imbalance of the infinity of God's love as relevant for interpersonal relationships. He notes the unpayable debt which a king forgave for his servant, and contrasts it with the pittance

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which the servant would not forgive his colleague. Seeing this injustice, the fellow-servants "were greatly distressed . . . and reported to their lord all that had taken place" (Matt. 18:23-35). God's final retribution is against those who cannot forgive a pittance when they have been forgiven to infinity.

3. A third characteristic of biblical law is its egalitarian nature. Unlike other Near Eastern codes, it makes no distinction between social classes (cf. ANET: 175). Because of this concern, biblical law emphasizes the rights of the socially disadvantaged and of the person rather than of property rights of the economically established (Ezek. 18:6b-8; Exod. 21:26-27).

Because biblical law is enveloped within covenant and punctuated by the motive-model clause, and because it is egalitarian, the law gives life. If Zedekiah had listened to the Lord's instruction not to rebel against Babylon (Ezek. 17, 19), and if the city had built itself up by obedience to law (chap. 18), Jerusalem would not have been destroyed. But Jerusalem covenanted with the coercive structure of Egypt, violating its covenant with God. Even then, the exiled community might live if, in the midst of Babylon, it would disassociate itself from Jerusalem's policy and build itself up by obedience to the law of its Lord.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Breaking the Cycle

In a Network Newsletter, a 28-year-old man tells how he turned from a life of crime to a life lived for God and the church. One day while in the prison shower, he fell on his knees, begging that God might save him, the water striking his chest, upturned hands, and face. God did save him; he faithfully attended chapel until released from prison. After his release, he found a Christian college where he was admitted to a study program. After a time, however, he drifted away from the college and found a place to live off campus. He became angry, got into an argument with a fellow employee, and in a rash moment stole a college computer. The police discovered who had stolen it, and the young man was in despair, thinking he would resume prison life.

However, a faculty member came to see him. The instructor informed him that the school wanted to help him. They would work with him through an organization called Victim-Offender Reconciliation Program, and he could repay the college for the stolen goods.

The young man had often read in the Bible about turning the oth-

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er cheek, going the second mile, and giving up a second coat. Although these stories had sustained him in prison, they seemed like fairy tales which never happen. But now he experienced forgiveness in a living situation.

Today the young man is married, an active member of a congregation, and at the time he told this story, he was expecting to become a father. He experienced a limit to retributionforgiveness, and help in reorienting his life. He found a community where Jesus' way was not a fairy tale.

This story illustrates the Ezekiel and Anabaptist principle of individual responsibility. But it also illustrates corporate responsibility. The congregation and college rejected the heavy hand of retribution in human relations to offer instead the way of forgivenessand discovered new life for themselves!

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A Dirge for Jerusalem's Government:

Ezekiel 19:1-14

Preview

Ezekiel is not yet done with Zedekiah's foreign policy. This dirge or funeral song is his third prophecy directed squarely against Zedekiah and his futile international politics (12:1-16; 17:1-24; 19:1-14; cf. 21:18-27). Two images in this dirge stand out, dividing it into two parts: the lioness and her cubs (19:2-9), and the vine and its stem (19:10-14). The theme of this funeral song is against the institution of a king "like other nations," which the elders chose to save Israel (1 Sam. 8). Human kingship is the cause of Israel's destruction and will itself be destroyed.

Though the hour is late, a year or so before Zedekiah's revolt against Babylon, does this destruction necessarily have to happen? (20:1). [Chronology, p. 377.] Ezekiel's intention for this dirge may be indicated by its alternative, a call to repentance and covenantal responsibility (chap. 18), placed between Ezekiel's two negative critiques of Zedekiah's policy (chaps. 17 and 19). The exiles must not look back to Jerusalem for their salvation; they must reject Jerusalem's policy of rebellion against Babylon and settle down to build and to plant their own communal existence (cf. Jer. 29:4-9). To be saved, not only the king but all Israel must choose life. They must rely upon obedience to the Lord's law and prophet for security rather than upon violence and arrogant power. By this choice of a way of life, a community chooses the style of its leadership.

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Outline

Introduction: A Funeral Song, 19:1

Your Mother: The Lioness and Her Cubs, 19:2-9

19:2-4

The First Cub: Jehoahaz

19:5-9

The Second Cub: Jehoiachin

Your Mother: The Vine and Its Stem, 19:10-14

19:10

The Vine Flourishes

19:11

The Ruler's Scepter and Its Arrogance

19:12-13

The Vine: Plucked Up, Dried Up, Transplanted

19:14

Branches Consumed: No Stem for a Ruler's Scepter

Explanatory Notes

Introduction: A Funeral Song 19:1

This is the first lamentation (Heb.: qinah) of the six designated laments in this book They are directed against the princes of Israel (19:1-14), against Tyre (26:17-18; 27:2-36; 27:32-36, a lament within a lament), against the king of Tyre (28:12-19), and against Pharaoh (32:2-16). As Ezekiel envisioned when he saw a scroll full of words of lamentation, the lament indicates the mood of all the judgment oracles against Israel and the nations (2:10; chaps. 4-32).

This literary type, a dirge or funeral song, is used by David to mourn the death of Saul (2 Sam. 1:17-27). The type comprises the entire book of Lamentations, five laments over the fall of Jerusalem, though the Hebrew term qinah nowhere occurs in the book.

This lament (chap. 19) is for the princes of Israel. Ezekiel uses prince for the Israelite leader 28 times (19:1; Heb.: nasi' *), but king occurs in the book only six times (melek, 1:2; cf. 34:23-24). Perhaps Ezekiel prefers this term, used of pre-kingship Israelite leaders, to distinguish between the Israelite office and a king "like other nations" (cf. Exod. 22:28, NRSV: "leader" for nasi).

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Your Mother: The Lioness and Her Cubs 19:2-9

With this allegory and its metaphors, Ezekiel addresses himself to three of the four kings who ruled in the last days of Judah: Jehoahaz (609 B.C.), Jehoiakim (609-598), Jehoiachin (Dec. 598-Mar. 597), and Zedekiah (597-587). For a similar royal roll call, compare Jeremiah 22:1023:6. [Kings of Judah, p. 380.]

19:2-4 The First Cub: Jehoahaz

Since the princes are addressed here, the singular pronoun your refers to them (19:2). Their mother likely refers to Israel. A lioness in the wild usually belongs to a pride of lions, a group whose number fluctuates considerably (cf. Adamson: 222, 252). The term lay down may refer to the sexual posture of a lioness during the mating period (Adamson: 56, 57); the two verbs are parallel: she lay down; she reared (NIV). The cubs are the children of royalty. The point of the lament is that what once was, is no longer. Once a lioness among lions, Israel no longer has strength to produce a scepter (cf. 19:14).

The identity of the first young lion is clearly Jehoahaz (19:3), since he was taken captive to Egypt (in 609 B.C.; 19:4; cf. 2 Kings 23:30-34). Ezekiel here may regard him as typical of kingship as a whole, since Jehoahaz (and Jehoiachin) reigned only three months and so hardly had time to do all this evil.

This first young lion learned to devour humans ('adam), here probably including non-Israelites (19:3; cf. 19:6). Ezekiel has his imagery right. A modern zoologist says that "man-eating lions have always given rise to fallacies and legends," one being that only old or injured lions become man-eaters. He tells how he helped kill three healthy man-eaters who had eaten nine men (Adamson: 55-59).

Some interpreters think that Ezekiel here regards these acts of killing as acceptable and is only emphasizing the greatness of the Israelite king. But Ezekiel's figure suggests otherwise. Pre-industrial societies did not regard eating humans as acceptable lion behavior. In addition, Ezekiel is not like the Italian statesman, Machiavelli, who insisted that political expediency is above morality. Ezekiel advocates that kings and princes, whom the figure of lion signifies, are under God's law (cf. 7:11, 23; 8:17; 12:19; 28:16; 45:9).

Since Jehoahaz acted like a lion in a jungle, he was subject to the law of the jungle: The nations heard about him, and he was trapped in their pit (19:4, NIV; cf. 5:6). The pit was a concealed hole designed in ancient times to trap animals, often used figuratively in the Bible

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(Ps. 9:15-16; 35:7; Prov. 26:27). Hooks are probably to be taken literally; they were used to lead captives into exile (cf. Ezek. 29:4; 38:4; Isa. 37:29). An Assyrian king boasts of how he treated a captive vassal: ''I pierced his cheeks with the sharp-edged spear: . . . I put the ring to his jaw, placed the dog collar about his neck" (ANET: 300; cf. Greenberg, 1983:351).

19:5-9 The Second Cub: Jehoiachin

The identity of this second cub is debated: Jehoiakim, who followed Jehoahaz (2 Kings 23:34; Jer. 22:10-19); Jehoiachin, who at the time of this lamentation is imprisoned in Babylon (cf. 19:9; 2 Kings 24:10-13; Jer. 22:11-12, 24-30); or Zedekiah, who has the same mother, Hamutal, as Jehoahaz (2 Kings 23:31; 24:18). But the most likely candidate is Jehoiachin, since he shares the exile with Ezekiel's audience and is the anchor for Ezekiel's system of dating (cf. 1:2).

Like his uncle Jehoahaz before him, Jehoiachin devoured humans (Heb.: 'adam, 19:6; cf. 19:3). Most translations reject the Hebrew text of 19:7a, And he knew his widows. Yet this reading fits the context; it may mean that, like David, he took as his wives the widows of those whom he killed (19:7, NRSV note; cf. 2 Sam. 12:9). Plagues of voracious kings may have been as frequent as were plagues of lions, documented by biblical and other Near Eastern literature (cf. 2 Kings 17:24-26).

In Ezekiel's allegory, reaction comes as swiftly upon Jehoiachin as it earlier came upon Jehoahaz (cf. 19:4). The land may be translated earth, which then parallels the next verse: The earth was appalled . . . (19:7); the nations set upon him (19:8). These nations are the provinces or regions all around, such as Moab, Edom, and the Philistines, who may be acting with Babylon's army. They spread their net, an instrument used both for hunting and in war; as a war instrument, it is portrayed by Sumerian art, 2500 B.C. (ANEP: no. 298, 307; cf. 12:13; 17:20; 32:3).

While the first prince was brought with hooks to the land of Egypt (19:4), this second prince is brought with hooks and in a cage . . . to the king of Babylon (19:9). There he is placed into custody or prison, the sad fate of Jehoiachin (2 Kings 24:12, 15; 25:27-30; cf. ANET: 308).

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Your Mother: The Vine and Its Stem 19:10-14

The theme of the entire lamentation is how the princes (the lion cubs) have so misused their office that Jerusalem's government, the Davidic dynasty, will come to an end (19:14). To make his point that this is the end, Ezekiel changes his metaphor from a lioness and her cubs to a vine (19:10) and its strongest stem (19:11). In pre-kingship times, the mother vine prospered; it was transplanted by the water, to enjoy all the advantages of ancient husbandry (19:10). Then its strongest stem became a ruler's scepter (19:11; cf. Judg. 9:8-15). It arrogantly towered aloft. Among the thick boughs might be translated, to reach the clouds (19:11, GNB). That is, the Davidic dynasty aspired to national glory, leading Israel for its own aggrandizement rather than for God's salvation purpose (cf. Ezek. 31:2-14, esp. 31:10, 14; Gen. 11:1-9).

First the heights (19:11), then judgment (19:12). The metaphor of wind or storm, appearing often in ancient annals for the march of armies, here signals the troops of Nebuchadnezzar (19:12; cf. Luckenbill: 40). Note the verbs of judgment against the mother: plucked up, cast down, dried . . . up, stripped off. Its strong stem, presently represented by the third prince, Zedekiah, will also be withered, consumed (19:12; cf. 19:11).

The vine, corresponding to mother Israel, was not only plucked up (19:12); once transplanted by the water (19:10), it is now transplanted . . . into a dry and thirsty land, a reference to the exile (19:13). Reminiscent of Jotham's fable, fire has gone out from its stem, the Davidic dynasty, to destroy the branches (19:14; cf. Judg. 9:15). Instead of husbanding the community, Israel's political leadership consumed the community for its self-aggrandizement.

"Where now is your king, that he may save you?" Hosea demands of Israel (Hos. 13:10). Trust in military power, and the community which such trust engenders, could not be curbed by the prophets to save Israelnot by Samuel, Micaiah, Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, nor by Ezekiel. Consumed by this fire, there remains in the community no strong stem, no scepter for ruling (19:14). The exiled community need not look to impotent Zedekiah for its salvation (cf. Jer. 23:1-6).

At the chapter's beginning and end its literary type is designated: this is a lamentation, a dirge for Jerusalem's government (19:1, 14b).

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The Text in Biblical Context

The Funeral Song

The funeral song in the OT is adapted to many uses. It mourns the death of important leaders (2 Sam. 1:17-27), bewails public calamities (Lam.), censures the moral and religious state of Israel (Amos 5:1-2), mocks the high and mighty by celebrating their death (Ezek. 28:12-19), and anticipates Israel's collective destruction (Jer. 9:10-11).

Ezekiel's six funeral songs, designated by the Hebrew word qinah, are all political. His first song is directed against the Davidic dynasty (chap. 19). He scores the Davidic kings for the violence and arrogance of their autonomous politics. He proclaims the end of the dynasty, already apparent in the political impotence of Zedekiah: There remains in it no strong stem, no scepter for ruling (19:14). His purpose is to deter the exiles in Babylon from cooperating with Zedekiah's impending revolt.

Ezekiel raises two death chants over the Mediterranean emporium, Tyre (26:17-18; 27:1-36). The second is complex in that it contains a chant within a chant (27:32-36). The mariners and pilots stand on the Mediterranean shore, throwing dust on their heads and wallowing in ashes (27:29-31). They raise a lament over Tyre, which ends Ezekiel's lament.

Like his dirge over the Davidic dynasty, Ezekiel directs funeral laments at two governments of the Near East: against the king of Tyre (28:11-19) and against Pharaoh of Egypt (32:1-16). There may be other chants in the book of Ezekiel which should be classified as funeral songs but which are not designated by the Hebrew term qinah (cf. 32:17-32).

A typical word of the funeral lament is How? (2 Sam. 1:19, 25, 27; Ezek. 26:17). The lament recounts the glory which once was and states the miserable condition which exists now. The prophetic dirges are adapted somewhat. The eulogy, the glory which was, becomes an indictment (19:3-7, 11) and the reason for the judgment which follows (19:8-9, 12-14).

The Text in the Life of the Church

He Devoured Humans

Peter Riedemann (1506-56) is sometimes called the second founder of the Hutterian Brethren, the oldest communal society in the world,

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today numbering some 32,000 members (ER, 6:327; ME, 5:406). Born in Germany, he was a deeply spiritual person who spent his lifetime in central Europe as a missionary, pastoral leader, and writer (ME, 4:326-327).

Riedemann is first encountered in prison in upper Austria. With his wife, Katharinahe calls her "Treindl" in the six extant letters which he wrote to herhe suffered much from the governments of central Europe. He spent a total of nine years in prison for his faith. Peter shepherded his people through the critical years of 15471551, when they were driven from their homes and had to travel about, surviving in underground tunnels, dug as temporary shelters.

Despite this negative treatment, Riedemann found a place for government in his Rechenschaft unseres Glaubens (An account of our faith, 1540-41), to this day the basic statement of faith for the Hutterian Brethren. So far as I am aware, he is the first to include, with his explanation of Romans 13 on the place of government in the life of the Christian, an exposition of OT passages negative toward kingship. He refers to 1 Samuel 8:7-22 fourteen times, and to Hosea 13:10-14 eleven times (Mann: 7). From these Scriptures, Riedemann concludes that civil government is a departure from the rule of God, a rejection of the Lord (esp. 1 Sam. 8:7).

Is this judgment too harsh? Balancing this out, Riedemann still held with Paul that civil government is necessary in a sinful world and that Christians are to obey it.

This is a dangerous world, and a major part of that danger derives from governments meant to establish order and to make life tenable. The modern secular state is not necessarily the answer to this problem of dysfunctional government. According to a reviewer in The New York Times Book Review, "Most religious societies throughout history have been intolerant, and their intolerance has led to killing and torture." Joseph D. Ciparick responds: "What about social Darwinism that spawned, or at least justified, Nazism and the atheistic scientific materialism of Stalin? Any comments on the 'decent' and 'liberal' eugenics movement, which is still going on today?" (7/25/93, 31).

Western democracies are not necessarily exempt from this problem. In World War II the United States government supported scientific experiments, infecting psychotic patients with malaria, and testing experimental vaccines on mentally handicapped persons. In the 1940s and 1950s, that government conducted radiation research on prisoners, patients, and mentally handicapped people. After the war

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the U.S. army financed researchers who fed hepatitis viruses to mentally handicapped infants, and the Atomic Energy Commission financed research which fed radioactive substances to mentally handicapped residents of a Massachusetts State School.

The U.S. Department of Defense financed research "that applied whole-body radiation to uninformed cancer patients," and the Central Intelligence Agency financed experiments "on unsuspecting patients by a Canadian psychiatrist to learn more about brainwashing" (The New York Times, 1/9/94, E21). Besides, there was saturation bombing of cities, including the nuclear bombing of Japan. And presently there is capital punishment by individual states.

"He devoured humans" is a critique which might be leveled not only against a few Judaic kings, but against the Davidic dynasty as a whole, beginning with King David himself (2 Sam. 12:9; 1 Kings 11:15-16). Even Josephus, a Jewish general, perceived that Moses meant to establish a quite different type of government: "Our legislator," he says, "had no regard to any of these forms [monarchic, oligarchic, or republican], but he ordained our government to be what, by a strained expression, may be termed a theocracy, by ascribing the authority and power to God, and by persuading all the people to have a regard to him, as author of all the good things that were enjoyed either in common by all mankind, or by each one in particular. . . . He informed them that it was impossible to escape God's observation, even in any of our outward actions, or in any of our inward thoughts" (Josephus, Against Apion 2.17).

Peter Riedemann understood that only God's rule in Christ can fulfill that vision. And he lived his life believing that this rule begins now.

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"I Will Be King over You!":

Ezekiel 20:1-44

Preview

Ezekiel turns counselor to the elders again. Only in the first consultation has the prophet responded in a positive way to the elders' concern (8:111:25). In this third consultation between prophet and exile leaders, as with the second, the Lord answers their request negatively (cf. 14:1-11). God will not be consulted by them. Unlike the second meeting, however, Ezekiel replies to their inquiry indirectly, with the story of Israel's rebellion.

While this then is the third response to the elders' inquiry, it is the second of Ezekiel's three recitals of Israel's story of rebellion (chaps. 16; 20:1-44; 23; cf. Ps. 78; 106; Ezra 9; Dan. 9:3-19; Acts 7). This story is essentially a judge's official condemnation of Israel, Ezekiel's proclamation of Israel's abominations (20:4); as such, it compares with chapters 16 (cf. 16:2), 22 (cf. 22:2), and 23 (cf. 23:36). Though a different vocabulary is used, Ezekiel's speech in chapter 20 compares with Samuel's judgment speech after Israel demanded a king (1 Sam. 12:6-18; "I will put the case against you," 12:7, NEB). The climax of Ezekiel's official proclamation of abominations is Ezekiel 20:32: What is in your mind shall never happenthe thought, "Let us be like the nations, like the tribes of the countries, and worship wood and stone" (cf. 1 Sam. 8:7, 20; 12:12). God's positive answer to this rebellion follows in Ezekiel 20:33: I will be king over you.

This third consultation closes the third portion of Ezekiel's judgment oracles against Judah (15:120:44; cf. OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). Even if the original editor may not have intended the consultations with the elders to mark the end of these portions, this division has the advantage of pointing up Ezekiel's immediate audience, the exiled community. This third portion is characterized by its extended

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metaphors: the useless vine (chap. 15), the faithless bride (chap. 16), the three gardeners and the vine (chap. 17), the mother lion and her cubs plus the mother vine and its sprig (chap. 19). Like chapter 18, this final chapter (20) is straightforward, without an extended metaphor.

Outline

Introduction: The Elders Consult, Ezekiel Judges, 20:1-4

Ezekiel Recounts the Story of the Ancestors, 20:5-29

20:5-9

Rebellion in Egypt

20:10-17

Rebellion in the Wilderness: First Generation

20:18-26

Rebellion in the Wilderness: Second Generation

20:27-29

Rebellion in the Land

Ezekiel Judges Israel's Present Rebellion, 20:30-41

20:30-32

Israel Is Disloyal, Like Its Ancestors

20:33-38

The Lord as King, Gathering and Purging Israel

20:39-41

The Lord as King, Setting Israel on the Mountain

Israel Shall Know, "I AM" Is Their God, 20:42-44

Explanatory Notes

Introduction: The Elders Consult, Ezekiel Judges 20:1-4

The importance of these consultations is indicated by the fact that two out of the three are dated (cf. 8:1); these are the only two dates to this point in the judgment oracles. The seventh year and fifth month is August 591 B.C. (20:1). The anchor event for the dates throughout the book is the deportation of Ezekiel and his contemporaries to Babylon, 597 B.C. (1:2). [Chronology, p. 377.] For the occasion, see PREVIEW, above.

On this day the elders come to consulta word which occurs five times in this text (20:1, 3eg, 31df). To consult the Lord is technical language and means that the elders request an oracle from the prophet to solve a community problem (cf. 14:7). The prophet responds to their request by a divine revelation, indicated by the revelation formula (20:2). [Revelation Formula, p. 381.]

The Lord replies, I will not be consulted by you. Thus the answer to their request is negative (20:3; cf. 14:1-3; cf. 1 Sam. 28:6, where a

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synonym for consult is used). This negative reply is preceded by the Lord's oath, As I live, which occurs three times in this text (20:3, 31, 33). For the concept of oath, see notes on 20:5.

Instead of giving a positive answer to their request, the prophet is to judge the elders by proclaiming the abominations of their ancestors (20:4; cf. PREVIEW). The point is that the community, which the elders represent, continues in Israel's abominable tradition of idolatry (cf. Deut. 7:25-26; 13:13-15; 17:4). The Lord's objection to the elders' third inquiry is essentially the same as it was in the second: their sin of idol worship. Here the point is made in story form (cf. 14:4).

Ezekiel Recounts the Story of the Ancestors 20:5-29

In his rehearsal of Israel's story, Ezekiel turns the customary salvation history on its head so that it becomes a judgment story (Deut. 26:5-9; cf. Ps. 78).

20:5-9 Rebellion in Egypt

Ezekiel begins his story with Israel in Egypt and deals not with the peoples' abominations but with God's gracious act for them. There God chose Israel, a favorite word of the Deuteronomist, occurring only this once in the book of Ezekiel (20:5; cf. Deut. 7:6; 14:2; 18:5; 21:5; 30:19). This choice is accompanied with an oath, I swore with uplifted hand (20:5, NIV). Reference to this ancient gesture for oath taking occurs in Hebrew three times in this immediate context and four times elsewhere in the chapter (20:5df, 6, 15, 23, 28, 42). Often a part of covenant making (Gen. 21:31-32), the oath confirmed God's commitment to Israel: I am the Lord your God. This new name of the God of the ancestors, LORD, was divulged to Moses at the exodus (Heb.: Yahweh; Exod. 3:13-15; 6:2; JB). The new name signified a new stage in the salvation story, an epoch of freedom from state slavery.

The foundation of God's covenant with Israel is this promise of redemption and its realization: I swore . . . that I would bring them out of the land of Egypt (20:6; cf. Exod. 19:4-5). Ezekiel links the promise of land with the exodus rather than with Abraham, though he was aware of the patriarchs (33:24). The purpose for bringing the people out of the land is that God might bring them into a land. The description of Canaan as flowing with milk and honey, the most glorious of all lands, was used by those who loved their homeland (cf. Exod. 3:8; 33:3; Lev. 20:24; Num. 13:27; Deut. 6:3; Josh. 5:6; cf. Dan. 11:41).

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The Lord's positive reminder of divine grace, Israel's election (20:5-6), is followed by a reminder of God's negative demand, God's law: Cast away . . . , do not defile yourselves with the idols of Egypt (20:7). Israel was to worship only that God who delivered them from state oppression; worship of Egypt's idols would lead them back into slavery. [Worship, p. 382.] As in the Decalogue (Exod. 20:2, 5), Ezekiel's statement of the exodus and its demand is enveloped in the "self-predication," God's declaration of The Name. God thus claims authority over Israel and the nations: I am the Lord [Yahweh] your God (20:5, 7; cf. TBC below). This relationship of God with people is the constant factor in the story of the people of God, throughout OT and NT.

Consistent with the OT elsewhere, Ezekiel proclaims that Israel's rebellion was their negative response to God's grace. The verbs pile up: They rebelled, would not listen, not . . . cast away the detestable things, nor . . . forsake the idols (20:8). But contrary to the prophets elsewhere in the OT, Ezekiel proclaims that Israel rebelled already in Egypt: Their eyes feasted on . . . the idols of Egypt (20:8; cf. Hos. 2:14-15; Jer. 2:2-3). Ezekiel's Israel was unfaithful from the beginning (cf. Exod. 32-34).

Also in Ezekiel's proclamation of the story, the Lord decided to destroy Israel already in Egypt (20:8ef; cf. Exod. 32:9-10). This did not happen, however, because the Lord wanted to maintain the integrity of the name (20:9). Here is the first occurrence of this important argument in Ezekiel's book (20:9, 14, 22, 44; cf. Jer. 14:7; Ps. 106:8).

Ezekiel argues that the Lord is caught on the horns of a dilemma. In the sight of the nations, the Lord made . . . known the divine intention to bring Israel out of the land of Egypt. Hence, God must act for the sake of the name, that it should not be profaned by God failing to carry through this intention (cf. Exod. 7:5; 8:10, 22; 9:14, 29; 14:4, 18). Otherwise, the nations would say that the Lord was unable to finish what the Lord had begun (cf. Exod. 32:11-14; Num. 14:13-16). God must act toward Israel not in accord with their evil ways, but to protect the integrity of the divine self, the Name. According to Ezekiel, this, rather than love, is God's motive for saving Israel (cf. 36:22-23; 39:7, 25; 43:7-8). In contrast to Hosea (3:1) and Jeremiah (31:3), Ezekiel never uses the word love for God's action.

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20:10-17 Rebellion in the Wilderness: First Generation

In the wilderness of Sinai, God gave the people statutes; their purpose was that everyone shall live (20:11, 13, 21; cf. 18:9, 17). Ezekiel emphasizes the sabbaths (20:12), an ancient institution in Israel (Exod. 20:8-11; Amos 8:5), because they were important during the exile as a sign, to distinguish Israel as God's people and sanctify them, set them apart. This may be translated, I am the Lord, their sanctifier. God fills Israel with holy power to live among the nations, yet to live a life different from the nations.

Psalm 78 details how Israel rebelled . . . in the wilderness (Ezek. 20:13). For the longer story, see Numbers 11-14; 16; 21; 25.

20:18-26 Rebellion in the Wilderness: Second Generation

Ezekiel contrasts two kinds of law in 20:18-19: statutes of your parents, their ordinances, their idols; my statutes, my ordinances, my sabbaths. For a discussion of differences between biblical and Near Eastern law, see "Kept Free by the Law" in TBC for 18:1-32. Again the repeated self-predication, I the Lord am your God, forms an envelope around the command to obey the law (20:19a, 20b; cf. 20:5-7: both promise and law are enveloped). The authority of God's law is established by this relationship between God and Israel, a relationship which excludes the worship of all other gods (cf. Exod. 20:2-3).

But the second generation also rebelled, doing no better than the first (20:21; cf. 20:8 and Num. 14:26-35). Again God threatens wrath and again relents (20:21b, 22; cf. 20:8-9; Num. 32:6-15). Ezekiel reconstructs Israel's history to make the point that Israel was saved not because of its good conduct, but for the sake of the divine name (20:22; cf. 20:14, 44).

Although the Lord would not destroy the people because of the name, Israel's rebellion had its consequences, each introduced by the word moreover (20:23, 25). The first consequence is indicated by God's oath: that I would scatter them among the nations (20:23). According to Ezekiel, the exile was a predetermined conclusion of the salvation story, before Israel even entered the land. Likely he based this upon the covenant, which included such threats if Israel responded to God's grace with disobedience (cf. Lev. 26:33; Deut. 28:36, 64; Ps. 106:26-27).

The second consequence is so radical that some versions have softened it; for example, the ancient Aramaic and the modern NIV (20:25-26; cf. Zimmerli, 1979:401). The NIV translates, I also gave

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them over to statutes that were not good and laws they could not live by. While this may be an ultimate explanation of this verse, the straightforward KJV translation can hardly be improved upon: Wherefore I gave them also statutes that were not good, and judgments whereby they should not live (20:25). These laws contrast with those which God delivered to the first generation, which gave life (20:11; cf. 18:9, 17, 21-22, 28, 30-31).

Perhaps because of its strong emphasis upon monotheism, the OT sometimes designates God as the source of disaster and evil (cf. Amos 3:6). In Ezekiel 14:9 God deceives the prophet who speaks a false word. In 2 Samuel 24, God incites David to an act which David later confesses as a sin; in a later writing, 1 Chronicles 21:1, this sin is incited by Satan. In Hosea 1:4 the prophet pronounces Jehu's massacre of Ahab's dynasty as murder, even though in 2 Kings 10:30 the Lord approves of the act. In 1 Kings 22:19-23, the Lord sends a messenger to put a lying spirit in the mouths of the prophets.

Although the purpose of the Lord's statutes is that by their observance everyone might live, the offering of the firstborn does not meet this test; it thus violates the heart of biblical faith (20:26; cf. 20:11, 13). Some interpreters regard this verse as evidence that God demanded human sacrifice even of the first generation, an example of a bad law to which Ezekiel refers in 20:25. Their argument is a tenuous one, however, based on Exodus 22:29b (cf. texts which discourage and prohibit human sacrifice: Exod. 13:2, 13-16; Deut. 12:29-31; Gen. 22:1-14; Jer. 7:31; 19:5; 32:35; Ezek. 16:20-21). Due to the pressure of Israel's environment, human sacrifice was practiced early and late in Israel; it may popularly but mistakenly have been regarded as the Lord's demand (Judg. 11:29-40; 1 Kings 16:34; 2 Kings 16:3, 17:17; 21:6; 23:10).

20:27-29 Rebellion in the Land

Twice the word therefore follows the recital of the wilderness story (Heb.: laken, 20:27, 30). The first therefore merely emphasizes the point, more rebellion by the ancestors who are now in the land. They blasphemed God, not by abusive words (as the term is often used), but by an abusive deed (Heb.: gadap, blasphemed, 20:27; cf. Isa. 37:6, 23, ''reviled"). They abused the Lord by dealing treacherously: they responded to God's bringing them into the Promised Land by trespassing the law of centralized worship, as stated in Deuteronomy (Ezek. 20:28; cf. Deut. 12:2-14).

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In the biblical tradition, a centralized worship was associated with the presence of the ark and tabernacle in early Israel (cf. Exod. 25ff.; 1 Sam. 1-3). But Israel also worshiped at the local Canaanite worship places, on any high hill and under any leafy tree. These places were reoriented to Israel's history and worship, though only partially (cf. Jacob at Bethel, Gen. 28:10-17; and Elijah on Mount Carmel, 1 Kings 18). To promote the worship of the Lord only, worship at high places was later prohibited by Josiah's reform (2 Kings 23:8; cf. Ps. 121:1). In the Hebrew text, the adverb there occurs four times (sam *, Ezek. 20:28; cf. KJV), emphasizing that Israel provoked God not merely with the people's offerings but by using the high place or Bamah for their sacrifices (20:29).

Because of this polemic against the high places, some interpreters suggest that the elder's inquiry had to do with establishing a sacrificial system in exile. This may have been part of their concern, but the full extent of what was in their mind is stated in 20:32.

Ezekiel Judges Israel's Present Rebellion 20:30-34

20:30-32 Israel Is Disloyal, Like Its Ancestors

With this second therefore, the recital of the way of the ancestors has ended. Ezekiel now is to apply this story of rebellion to the present house of Israel (20:30). The rhetorical question drives home the point of the recital: Will you defile yourselves after the manner of your ancestors? (20:30). This likely refers to the idol worship of the exiles, though the people in Judah are not excluded. Ezekiel's enlargement on this question is more difficult, for how would improper gifts and sacrifice of children apply to the exiles (20:31)? Did the exiles participate in the idolatrous worship of Babylon? Or did Ezekiel regard the house of Israel as a totality, so that the offerings in Judah add to the exiles' improper worship? Either way, recent archaeology corroborates Ezekiel's indictment that Israelite religion assimilated in a major way the idolatry of its environment (cf. Dever: 119-155). A century after Ezekiel, a Jewish community on the Elephantine island (near the present Aswan dam in Egypt) worshiped Yahweh and Anath, whom they regarded as Yahweh's consort or more likely as a personified quality of Yahweh (ABD, 1:226).

Although the Lord does not reply to their inquiry, God does answer what they have in their mind, the thought of assimilation (20:32). At Ramah, Israel wanted to be like the nations by taking on their form of government (1 Sam. 8:4-5). Now they wish to be like the

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nations by taking on their worship. Both are a rejection of God. Though Israel must live among the nations, they are not to lose their identity, the key to which is right worship. Worship of the Lord is the foundation for Israel's way of life.

20:33-38 The Lord as King, Gathering and Purging Israel

Mighty hand and outstretched arm (20:33) are Deuteronomic metaphors used of the Lord's deliverance of Israel from Egypt (Deut. 4:34; 5:15). In this second exodus, the Lord will demonstrate such mighty power with wrath poured out, wrath against Israel's desire to assimilate with the nations (20:34). Try as it would, Israel would be unable to assimilate.

I will be king over you (20:33d) is connected closely with right worship (20:32), for worship provides the structure of the Lord's rule. All of the Pentateuchal law collections begin with laws of worship and then proceed to laws of interhuman relations (Exod. 20:1-6; 20:22-25; Lev. 17; Deut. 12; 27:15).

As in the first exodus, after bringing Israel out from the peoples (20:34), God will bring Israel into the wilderness of the peoples (20:35). This wilderness may be the great Arabian desert, surrounded by the peoples of the Fertile Crescent. For the intimacy of the metaphor face to face, see Exodus 33:11; Numbers 14:14. Here, however, it is not a friendly encounter, but a confrontation.

This second exodus will parallel the first also in judgment (Ezek. 20:36; cf. 20:8, 21; Num. 14:20-25). Pass under the staff may be explained by the shepherd's practice of counting sheep or cattle as they enter the fold (Ezek. 20:37; cf. Lev. 27:32: every tenth one is holy to the Lord; Jer. 33:13; Luke 15:4). Israel will be so counted; those who pass the test will be brought within the bond of the covenant, into the fold (Ezek. 20:37). Those who rebel, God will bring out from the land where they sojourn (20:38, RSV), a term used of the ancestors in the land of Canaan (Gen. 17:8; 28:4; 36:7; 37:1; 47:9; Exod. 6:4). The rebels, however, sojourn in foreign lands, lands without promise. Ezekiel says they shall not enter the land of Israel; they shall die in the wilderness, as did the rebels of the first exodus (Num. 14:20-25).

The goal of this gathering and purging is Israel's recognition of the Lord, an acknowledgment of God's kingship in Israel's life (20:38).

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20:39-41 The Lord as King, Setting Israel on the Mountain

Speaking to the elders, Ezekiel begins this segment with satire (20:39). If Israel will not worship the Lord, then they should not pretend to do so. Hypocrisy compounds their sin.

My holy mountain is Mount Zion (20:40; cf. Isa. 4:1-4). The three occurrences of there contrast with the four of Ezekiel 20:28. The Lord will be worshiped, not at the holy places, but at The Holy Place. Israel itself will be a pleasing odor, an acceptable sacrifice to God (20:41: cf. Rom. 12:1). Besides the idea of separateness, the concept of holiness here means God's strange power to bring history to this successful conclusion, despite being represented by a powerless people. Zion will be the seat of God's rulenot Babylon nor Thebes, the two historic seats of ancient Near Eastern power.

The Lord did not destroy Israel that the name be not profaned in the sight of the nations (Ezek. 20:9, 14, 22). Thus God's positive act, gathering Israel out of the nations, will manifest the divine holiness among Israel in the sight of the nations (20:41e). This is a type of universalismnot that of empire, but that of a spiritual and moral leadership. This is what Israel's election is about.

Israel Shall Know, "I AM" Is Their God 20:42-44

The third and fourth recognition formula of this chapter form an envelope (20:42, 44; cf. 20:26, 38). Israel will recognize that the Lord is able to rule Israel's future according to the promise which God swore to their ancestors (20:42).

Israel is brought to repentance by the Lord's gracious act. It will loathe itself for all the evils (20:43). God rules history "not by might nor by power" (Zech. 4:6), whether of Babylon or Egypt. So the Lord rules history, not by Israel's moral achievement, but despite it, because of who God is: for my name's sake (Ezek. 20:44).

The Text in Biblical Context

For My Name's Sake

All three of Ezekiel's surveys of history contend that Israel was rebellious from its beginning, continuing this rebellion into the exile. Only the first two have a happy ending (chaps. 16, 20, 23). Of these two, only the second speaks to the question of God's motivation for continuing and consummating this relationship with faithless Israel. In-

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stead of love, the integrity of God's name is the motivating principle: for my name's sake (20:9, 14, 22, 44; cf. 36:20-23; 39:7, 25; 43:7-8).

Perhaps Ezekiel emphasizes the integrity of God's name because it is difficult for those who have experienced the exile to believe in God's love. Another advantage may be that this way of putting it relates God's concern not mainly to Israel but to the nations: But I acted for the sake of my name, that it should not be profaned in the sight of the nations among whom they lived, in whose sight I made myself known to them in bringing them out of the land of Egypt (20:9).

The Lord's concern for the divine name does not begin with Ezekiel; it is a concern of Israel's ancient traditions. In the exodus story, it is God's reason for permitting Pharaoh to live: "But this is why I have let you live: to show you my power, and to make my name resound through all the earth" (Exod. 9:16). Already in Israel's ancient traditions, God's deliverance of Israel from Egypt had universal significance.

Moses appealed to this universal significance in his intercession for Israel: "Why should the Egyptians say, 'It was with evil intent that he brought them out to kill them in the mountains, and to consume them . . .'? Turn from your fierce wrath" (Exod. 32:12). This regard for the Name is a concern for God's reputation. Just by being in exile, Israel profanes God's holy name in that it was said of them, "These are the people of the Lord, and yet they had to go out of his land" (36:20).

Nevertheless, the concern is for more than mere reputation; God's integrity is at stake. The Lord is faced with a dilemma. The first horn of the dilemma is that by its conduct, Israel profaned God's holy name (Ezek. 20:39; cf. Amos 2:7; Jer. 34:16; Mal. 1:12; Lev. 18:21). For this reason God punished Israel, scattering them among the nations. Far from being a solution, however, this constituted the second horn of the dilemma. The nations of the Near East connected divinity with martial power; where then is the power of Israel's God? Moreover, the Lord's oath to the ancestors must be fulfilled (Ezek. 20:42, 44). Both horns of the dilemma must be resolved: God must gather Israel back to its land and cause the people to repent from all the evils that they have done (20:43).

It is striking that Ezekiel, though strongly influenced by Jeremiah and Hosea, does not follow their example of speaking about the love of God. But a postexilic psalm parallels Hosea's love motive with Ezekiel's name motive:

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Our ancestors, when they were in Egypt . . . ,

did not remember the abundance of your steadfast love . . .

Yet he saved them for his name's sake,

so that he might make known his mighty power. (Ps. 106:7-8)

The NT is overwhelmingly in the love tradition of Hosea (John 3:16). Yet it has more than a trace of the name theology; this theology is not associated with the church's faithlessness but with universal mission. In the prayer that Jesus taught his disciples, the hallowing of the Father's name is bonded with the coming of the kingdom, and with the doing of God's will on earth (Matt. 6:9). Disciples of all nations are to be baptized in the Father's name (Matt. 28:19).

The Text in the Life of the Church

On the Fiftieth Anniversary of World War II

I am writing these words on September 1, 1989, the fiftieth anniversary of the beginning of World War II. My adult life spans these fifty momentous years of world history: the world war with fifty million dead; the beginning of a new era of frightening nuclear technology; the cold war which heated up in Korea and Vietnam; the development of hi-tech and international business between the Pacific Rim, North America, and the European Community; development in the two-thirds world and among racial minorities; the migration of millions of refugees; and now suddenly, unexpectedly, Gorbachev and a changing configuration of states in Eastern Europe.

I have experienced these fifty momentous years within the context of the church, a church which has participated in and responded to these world events with global missions, peace, relief and development programs; health and mutual aid institutions; justice and reconciliation efforts; interracial witness, church plantings, education and publication efforts; a drawing together of like-committed, congregational bodies.

On this fiftieth anniversary of World War II, I am surprised by joy that the world, despite its rebellion, is still intact, and that the church, despite its unfaithfulness, still exists. I look forward, as I have in the past, to a loving God to chart the way. When it is hard to believe in a loving God, I will fall back on the logic of Ezekiel's Name theology, on the integrity of God who has given a word of promise and who has begun a saving work among the nations: "The one who has begun a good work in you will bring it to completion at the day of Jesus Christ" (Phil. 1:6).

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The Sword of the Lord:

Ezekiel 20:4521:32 (Hebrew, 21:1-37)

Preview

Ezekiel's preaching is heating up. The first oracle images a forest fire in the south, which then is interpreted as the sword of the Lord against Jerusalem (20:4521:7). The second and third oracles are dominated by the key word, sword (21:8-17, 18-32). The first and third oracles are united in the conviction that this threat will come from the north (20:46; 21:19-22; cf. Jer. 6:22), a threat identified with Babylon (Ezek. 21:19-22; cf. Jer. 25:9).

Perhaps Ezekiel's purpose at this late moment is not to save Jerusalem but to save the exiles, to dissuade them from becoming involved in king Zedekiah's rebellion (cf. Jer. 29). As stated in Ezekiel 17:22-24 and in following chapters of hope (34-48), God's future is not to be achieved by Israel's sword, but by acceptance of divine discipline, obedience to Torah and prophet, and patient waiting for the Lord's action. In this purpose, Ezekiel is successful. Though Nebuchadnezzar will sack Jerusalem, he does not need to put down a rebellion in the exile community. The Babylonian exiles, rather than Jerusalem, will become the channel for the continuity of the God-movement that began with the call of Abraham.

This chapter (by Hebrew reckoning) introduces the fourth portion of Ezekiel's judgment oracles, "From Pantomiming the Sword's March to Jerusalem to Pantomiming the Fall of the City" (20:4524:27; cf. OVERVIEW of 4:124:27). In this portion, Ezekiel speaks of the last phase of the city's history, a phase accelerating toward the final siege (588-587 B.C.): the sword's march from Babylon to Jerusalem (20:4521:22); God's wrath poured out on the bloody, idolatrous city (chap. 22); Jerusalem bearing the penalty

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for integrating into the Near Eastern military culture (chap. 23); and finally, the city's siege and its end, prefigured by the tragic death of Ezekiel's wife (chap. 24).

Outline

First Sword Oracle: Against the South, Jerusalem, 20:4521:7

20:45-49

Allegory of the Forest Fire

21:1-7

The Allegory Interpreted: The Sword of the Lord

Second Oracle: Song of the Sword, 21:8-17

21:8-13

The Sword, Made and Delivered to Israel's Slayer

21:14-17

The Sword, Directed by the Lord's Prophetic Word

Third Oracle: Two Ways for the Sword, 21:18-32

21:18-27

The Way to Jerusalem

The King of Babylon's Decision, 21:18-23

The Day of the Lord's Judgment, 21:24-27

21:28-32

The Sword upon Ammonand Babylon!

Explanatory Notes

Often associated with the sword in the Bible, the image of fire envelopes this text, marking its editorial boundaries (20:47; 21:31-32). [Inclusio, p. 379.] The connection of the images, fire and sword, may be the scorched-earth policy, a practice of ancient and modern times (cf. Judg. 1:8; 2 Kings 25:9; the 1864 march of Sherman through Confederate States to the sea). This editorial unit is divided into four distinct segments by the formula, The word of the Lord came to me (20:45; 21:1, 8, 18). [Revelation Formula, p. 381.]

First Sword Oracle: Against the South, Jerusalem 20:4521:7

20:45-49 Allegory of the Forest Fire

From the perspective of Babylon's army, which would come from the north, the word of the Lord commands Ezekiel to set his face toward the south, to preach and prophesy against it (20:46). This statement is somewhat enigmatic: Ezekiel uses three Hebrew synonyms

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which may be translated south (cf. NIV). The first and last are also place names and so translated by some versions: Teman, a region in Edom; and the Negeb, a region north and south of Beersheba (NRSV). Since Ezekiel's interpretation involves only Jerusalem as capital of the land of Israel, it is best to regard the three words as synonyms meaning south (21:2). The forest of the south may be a play on the name of the royal palace, "the House of the Forest of the Lebanon" (1 Kings 7:2; 10:17, 21; cf. IDB, 2:657-658). God commands Ezekiel to speak about this palace (Ezek. 20:47).

In both allegory and interpretation, God is the immediate actor, though later the king of Babylon is actor as the Lord's servant: The Lord God says, I will kindle a fire (20:47; cf. 21:19-23; Jer. 25:9; 27:6; 43:10). The Lord is indeed a warrior, this time against Israel (cf. Exod. 15:3). Tragically, green tree and dry tree, righteous and wicked, all faces from south to north shall be scorched; the innocent will suffer with the guilty, as is also characteristic of life today (cf. Ezek. 21:4).

The purpose of God's judgment is positive, as stated in both the allegory and its interpretation: All flesh shall see, all flesh shall know (20:48; 21:5). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] In context, all flesh is limited to Israel (21:4). Israel will acknowledge that the morally demanding God of Sinai determines world history rather than the gods of wood and stone, and that this One will be King over them (cf. 20:32-33).

Ezekiel closes the allegory by revealing his sensitivity to an audience which does not take him seriously (20:49; cf. 12:22, 27; 18:19, 25, 29). Their complaint is that he does not speak plainly, his truth is half hidden. For an explanation of allegories, see "What Is This Proverb?" in TBC for 12:21-28.

21:1-7 The Allegory Interpreted: The Sword of the Lord

The interpretation consists of two parts: what Ezekiel is to preach (21:2-5), and what he is to act out (21:6-7). Sanctuaries (21:2), used in the plural elsewhere only of Tyre's worship places (28:18), may refer to Judah's high places (cf. 20:28-31). Jerusalem, like Ottawa or Washington, stands for the entire country, the land of Israel.

Elsewhere the Lord says that only the person who sins shall die (chap. 18); here God says to Jerusalem, I . . . will cut off from you both righteous and wicked (21:3). Commentators have discussed this contradiction from ancient times to the present. Did Ezekiel

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mean to apply chapter 18 only to the circumstance of the exiles?

Ezekiel alternates between describing the destruction of the external environment (21:3-5) and the heaviness of the prophet's inner feelings(21:6-7), as does Jeremiah (4:5-10). Like Jeremiah (4:19), Ezekiel is to experience breaking heart and bitter grief (21:6) before the event happens. He is to groan (cf. NIV; Exod. 2:23) before the eyes of his hearers so that they will ask Why? and be warned of the news that has come (21:7). Thus, before the event, the prophet is to suffer vicariously or as a substitute so that his hearers may have the opportunity to escape it (cf. "Christus Victor" in TBC for 4:15:17). The verb may be translated in past tense, news that has come (NRSV), obtained by Ezekiel's revelation; or it may be translated in future tense, is coming (NIV), referring to future news from Jerusalem (33:21-22).

All knees will turn to water (21:7) may be literally translated, all knees shall run with water, expressing what physically happens when a person is terrified by imminent death. The Assyrian king Sennacherib writes that when he defeated the kings of Elam and Babylon, "they were beside themselves . . . they held back [?] their urine, but let their dung go into their chariots" (Luckenbill: 47).

Second Oracle: Song of the Sword 21:8-17

The Song of the Sword may be divided into two parts: first, the sword's manufacture and delivery to the slayer (21:9-13); second, its direction and reinforcement by the Lord's word (21:14-17). No one knows what the Hebrew of 21:10b and 13 means, as diverging NRSV, RSV, and NIV translations testify. In contrast to Lamech's Song of Revenge (Gen. 4:23), this song is not an arrogant celebration of a martial victory; instead, it calls forth a lament (21:12). At points, the sword takes on a personality of its own.

The sword is against God's people and all the princes of Israel (21:12; cf. 12:25). In this book, the word prince occurs 28 times of Judah's highest political officials. The noun king is used of these officials in only six verses of Ezekiel's oracles (7:27; 17:12; 37:22, 24; 43:7, 9). This reticence to use the term king of human officials is characteristic of Israel's ancient texts due to Israel's rejection of power politics, a rejection climaxing in Jesus' teaching (cf. 1 Sam. 9:16-17; 10:1; Mark 10:42-45). Strike the thigh (21:12) expresses remorse; the term occurs elsewhere only in Jeremiah 31:19. Strike hand to hand, a gesture used of the prophet and of God, confirms and sup-

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ports the divine word regarding the sword (21:14, 17; cf. 6:11; 22:13; 2 Kings 11:12).

Third Oracle: Two Ways for the Sword 21:18-32

21:18-27 The Way to Jerusalem

Is Ezekiel to incise this highway intersection with its signpost on a clay brick (21:19; cf. 4:1)? Or is he to mark out the Y in the sand, then to place a signpost there, made of willow (cf. 17:5; Jer. 31:21)?

The two ways (RSV) or roads begin as one, from the same land, Babylon, and then fork (at Damascus?). One way goes along the east side of the Jordan River toward the capital of the Ammonites, the city of Rabbah (now Amman, Jordan). The other way runs along the west side toward Jerusalem, capital of Judah (21:20; Aharoni: map 10). The two roads represent different destinations and thus different military strategies. Jerusalem may be called the fortified as a reminder that preparations for revolt are being made in disobedience to Ezekiel's prophecies.

This prophecy illustrates how ancient armies made important decisions. The king of Babylon would use three means for divination: arrows, teraphim, and the liver, each confirming the other (21:21; cf. 2 Kings 13:15-19; Gen. 31:19, 34-35). Divination by examining a liver of a sacrificial animal, a typical Babylonian practice, is never used by Israel in the biblical story. Many clay models of livers have been found, some with inscriptions of omens and magical texts used by diviners (IDB, 1:856-858). Liver ''science" was based on analogy. Various formations of the liver were synchronized with important past events; it was assumed that when such formations reoccurred, a similar event would also occur.

The lot (21:22), presumably the arrow marked Jerusalem, falls into the king's right hand. The decision is made. Nebuchadnezzar will proceed south to Jerusalem and not to Rabbah.

Though ancient Israel used simple means for decision making, such as the sacred lot (1 Sam. 23:9-21; 30:7-8; 14:36-37; 28:6), the Bible prohibits divination (cf. Deut. 18:9-14). Instead, Israel was to employ the intuitive, revelatory word of the prophet (Deut. 18:15-22).

While 21:21 shows how strategic decisions are made, 21:22 describes how siege warfare is fought. The battle cry, a part of psychological warfare, is meant to terrify the enemy and unite the attackers (cf. Judg. 7:20). A frieze of Sennacherib's siege of Lachish, a century

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earlier than Ezekiel, shows a battering ram hacking at the wall, and a ramp on which it rolls to reach higher on the wall (ANEP: no. 373; cf. 368-369). Sennacherib describes the siege of Judah's cities:

By leveling with battering rams [?]

and by bringing up siege engines [?],

by attacking and storming on foot,

by mines, tunnels, and breaches [?]),

I besieged and took [those cities]. (Luckenbill: 32-33)

Because divination was prohibited in Israel, king Zedekiah and his counselors might regard the decision as false (21:23). However, even Babylon's divination may serve God's purpose.

Ezekiel 21:23bc and 24 are difficult. Like 17:1-4, two levels may be referred to: representatives of king Zedekiah have sworn covenant oaths to the Babylonian king; when they break these oaths, he brings their guilt to remembrance by their capture (21:23d). On another level, their transgressions and sins against God are revealed in all their deeds; for these, they will be judged (21:24).

Ezekiel ends this prophecy against Jerusalem with his fourth and sharpest criticism of king Zedekiah (21:25-27; cf. 12:1-16; chaps. 17, 18). Addressed directly as vile, wicked prince, Zedekiah's day of "defrocking" has come (21:25; cf. 21:12). Turban and crown will be removed, and the social order will be leveled (21:26; cf. 1 Sam. 2:6-8; Luke 1:51-53). This transformation of society from a hierarchical to egalitarian model is important to Ezekiel (cf. chap. 48).

The one who comes is interpreted by some as pointing to Nebuchadnezzar (21:27d; cf. JB; also Isa. 10:5). But the traditional messianic interpretation is likely correct; whose right it is (cf. Gen. 49:10) refers to a future ruler of David's line who, in contrast to Zedekiah, will restore God's social order (cf. 17:22-24; 34:23-24).

21:28-32 The Sword upon Ammonand Babylon!

This passage, tied closely with the preceding linguistically and structurally, brings the total segment to a logical end. Although the king of Babylon will choose the road to Jerusalem, the Ammonites will not escape. The sword of the Lord has been drawn against Jerusalem (21:3), sharpened and polished (21:9-10). Now it will likewise be drawn against Ammon (21:28). Zedekiah regards the bad news of Babylonian omens as false (21:23). Similarly, the optimistic visions (21:29) and divining of the Ammonite seers in regard to this sword

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are false. Zedekiah was the vile, wicked prince . . . whose day has come (21:25). Here the Ammonites have that honor (21:29b).

The command, Return it [the sword] to its sheath (21:30), forms an envelope or inclusio with 21:3: I . . . will draw my sword out of its sheath. [Inclusio, p. 379.] The sword throughout refers to that of Babylon, which will devastate Judah and Ammon. Now Bablyon's destiny is addressed (cf. Zimmerli, 1979:449-450). Though the sword of Babylon is the instrument of the Lord's wrath, Babylon will not escape punishment (cf. Isa. 10:12; 37:7). With the judgment by which it judged, Babylon's sword will be judged (21:31; cf. Matt. 7:1-2). Not the sword but the word of the Lord spoken by the prophet is the final arbiter of history (21:32b).

The Text in Biblical Context

The Sword Chapter

If 1 Corinthians 13 is called the love chapter of the Bible, Ezekiel 21 might be called the sword chapter. The word sword (hereb *), used 83 times in Ezekielmore than in any other book of the Bibleoccurs 15 times in Ezekiel 21, more than in any other chapter of the Bible.

This emphasis upon the sword, characteristic of other prophetic books, establishes Ezekiel's right to be called a realist. Ezekiel's head is not in the sand. His theology of history emphasizes the terror of the sword in human history, a realism which many modern theologies have all but lost, making them irrelevant to our bloody century.

This Sword Chapter of the Bible is introduced by the metaphor of a forest fire which blazes in Judah, the forest land in the south (20:45-49; Heb.: 21:1-5). The metaphor is found twice in the book of Isaiah, where a firestorm rages against land and people (Isa. 9:18-19) and where a fire burns against Assyria (10:16-19). It occurs again in the book of Jeremiah, where a fire is kindled against Judah's king (Jer. 21:14). Like a forest fire which generates its own windstorm, the warfare of the blazing sword is not easily contained or put out.

Named in the book of Jeremiah the sword of the Lord (12:12; 47:6), the sword in Ezekiel 21 is designated as the Lord's by the personal pronoun, my sword (21:3-5; cf. 30:24-25; 32:10). This sword of the Lord will be unsheathed against the Lord's own people, both righteous and wicked (21:3). Ezekiel's theology of retribution is complex and difficult to harmonize with his earlier statement: It is only the person who sins that shall die (18:4).

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Ezekiel has a strong sense of the righteousness of God, of justice meted out in divine retribution against the wicked nation. He states this as a general principle, the sword as one of the four retributions which God brings upon a faithless land (14:12-20).

This sword of the Lord is identified with the sword of the king of Babylon (21:19). The relationship is clearly stated in 30:25: When I put my sword into the hand of the king of Babylon. . . . As the Lord's agent, Babylon wields the sword against Jerusalem and Ammon (21:22, 28-29), against Tyre (26:7-9) and Egypt (30:11, 24-26). For Ezekiel, Babylon is clearly the rod of God's anger, the Lord's agent of retribution in the ancient Near East (cf. Isa. 10:5, of Assyria).

Ezekiel does not identify this sword of the Lord with Israel. To meet the challenge of the exile, Ezekiel borrows heavily from the tradition of early Israel. This aspect of holy war, "A sword for the Lord and for Gideon!" is available to him (Judg. 7:20). But this is out of character with Ezekiel's thought; the rod of God's anger is not Israel but the nations (cf. notes on Ezek. 25:14). The final solution to the problem of the sword is indeed dealt with in Israel's land, but by God's immediate action and not by Israel (38:8, KJV).

Ezekiel 21:30-32 is the only text in the book of Ezekiel which metes out punishment to Babylon (cf. Jer. 51). His reference to Babylon is somewhat veiled, perhaps because of his vulnerability as a resident in the enemy's land, or perhaps because he does not wish to encourage his fellow exiles' eagerness to revolt against Babylon.

But Ezekiel is more concerned with the problem of the sword than he is with Babylon. In chapter 21 the sword takes on a personality of its own. In chapters 38-39, the sword's oppression is dealt with once and for all not by wreaking vengeance upon Israel's historic enemies (chaps. 25-32), but by God's destruction of a mythic invader from the far-off North (38:4; 39:2).

In the NT, the two Greek words translated "sword" occur 34 times. The word is used symbolically of the sword of the Spirit, the word of God (Eph. 6:17; cf. Heb. 4:12). Of the sword as a weapon, Jesus said to Peter in a command worded somewhat like that of Ezekiel 21:30, "Put your sword back into its place; for all who take the sword will perish by the sword" (Matt. 26:52; cf. John 18:11; Rev. 13:10).

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The Text in the Life of the Church

The Two Kingdoms

The Anabaptists of the sixteenth century, like their contemporaries the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists, believed strongly in a doctrine of two kingdoms. The Anabaptist model is represented by Hans Schnell, a sixteenth-century author who writes in the spirit of the Schleitheim confession (Gross).

Schnell asserts that there are two kingdoms, the kingdom of this world and the peaceable kingdom of Christ. There is no truce between these kingdoms, which are separate and cannot intermingle. The worldly kingdom persecutes the peaceable kingdom, but it will be crushed by Christ. The heavenly kingdom shines as light in the darkness.

In Schnell's view, the worldly kingdom is under God's covenant with Noah, which includes the law of vengeance (Gen. 9:6). The power of the sword is ordained and commanded by God, but that power is limited to the punishment of evil. Government is a positive institution in the world to punish the bad and to protect the person who is good.

For Schnell, the vocation of the Christian and of civil government are opposed, as light is opposed to darkness. Representing a different calling and office, Christians are forbidden to execute vengeance; they are to love the enemy, to overcome evil with good. Christians kill no one physically; they do not engage in war or impose capital punishment. The government's calling is to do vengeance; the Christians' calling is to do love and mercy. The government has the status of a servant and slave in relation to God; the Christian has the status of a child, an heir.

Schnell identifies Nero as a godless man who persecuted Christians; Paul nevertheless called him the rod of God's punishment. Pharaoh was a vessel of God's wrath fitted for destructionbut still God's minister. The king of Babylon was God's rod, the Lord's minister, yet upon whom was pronounced woe. Pilate was also a minister of God, given power to crucify Jesus. Through Pilate's false sentence and sin against Christ, the sins of all believers are annulled in Christ's death. God uses government as a minister, whether it performs well or badly; it will suffer if it performs badly and will be rewarded if it performs well. But even when it performs well, it performs as a servant-slave and not as a child of God. The kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship; but Christian leaders are not to be like them.

While Schnell held to a fundamental difference between OT and

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NT, he nevertheless recognized that God had already given to Israel a law that was different from the law of the nations. Israel by its law had a foreshadowing of Christ. As the shadow on the wall reveals a man, so the law shows Christ and the inward nature of the kingdom.

Schnell said that any ruler who wants to be a Christian must be obedient to Christ's teaching and follow his example. That ruler must punish nobody according to the law of vengeance, but must love the enemy, suffer blows, drink the cup of suffering, and turn the other cheek, as Christ teaches. For the Christian church has not won the victory by domination but by suffering.

In comparing Schnell's understanding of the two kingdoms with the text of Ezekiel, it is clear that Ezekiel regards Israel's vocation as different from that of the nations (5:5-6). The wielding of the sword is not the vocation of Israel but of Nebuchadnezzar (cf. notes on 25:14). The sword as principle (or "personality") has a limited function, and even this limitation is under God's judgment. Ultimate victory over oppression and the sword comes in connection with Israel's vocation, in Israel's land. It is achieved not by Israel, however, but by God's immediate action, which is a witness to the nations, showing the viability of the way taken by the quiet people who live in safety (38:11).

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The Bloody City:

Ezekiel 22:1-31

Preview

The hour is late; the fate of Jerusalem has been decided. But the three prophetic speeches of this chapter, each introduced by the revelation formula (22:1, 17, 23), again review the case against Jerusalem, to justify the sentence soon to occur. In these speeches the attention is focused not upon judgment itself but upon the reason for judgment. Can judgment be averted either by a change in the people or by some change on the part of God? If judgment cannot be averted, can Israel be cured of disloyalty by being fully convinced of the cause of judgment?

Outline

Declaration of Jerusalem's Abominations, 22:1-16

22:1-5

A City of Murder and Idolatry

22:6-12

A List of Broken Laws

22:13-16

The Exile as Discipline

Israel Has Become Refuse, 22:17-22

A Polluted Land, 22:23-31

22:23-29

Sins of the Leaders

22:30-31

No One to Stand in the Breach

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Explanatory Notes

Declaration of Jerusalem's Abominations 22:1-16

This first speech, like chapters 16 and 20, is a formal declaration of Jerusalem's abominable deeds (22:2; cf. 16:2; 20:4). Unlike those chapters, Ezekiel here declares not past sins but present sins.

22:1-5 A City of Murder and Idolatry

Ezekiel declares Jerusalem's abominable deeds as essentially two: shedding blood and making . . . idols (22:3). The first is a violation of the law of interhuman relationships, the oppression of fellow covenant members, those within the city (cf. Exod. 20:13; Ezek. 7:23; 9:9). [Economic Justice, p. 377.] The second is a violation of the law regulating the human-divine relationship, idolatry (cf. Exod. 20:4; Ezek. 20:16, 24). [Worship, p. 382.] Thus Jerusalem violates both justice toward the neighbor and loyalty to God, the covenant structure upon which biblical justice depends (cf. Matt. 22:36-40).

These two abominable deeds have three results for Jerusalem: First, you have become guilty; you have violated a fundamental law (22:4; cf. Gen. 4:10; Exod. 20:13). Second, you have become . . . defiled, contaminated by an element foreign to Jerusalem's nature (Ezek. 22:4; cf. 20:30-31, 43). Third, being guilty and defiled, you have brought your day near; Jerusalem brings upon itself its own day of wrath (22:4; cf. 7:12). However, judgment is not impersonal and inevitable. Even in disaster, impersonal forces are not in control. Israel's God is in control: Therefore I have made you a disgrace (22:4).

22:6-12 A List of Broken Laws

Ezekiel has his own list of Ten Commandments. He begins with the princes of Israel, the ruling family (22:6; cf. 19:1-9). Each prince misuses power by shedding blood. The phrase according to his power is from figurative language in Hebrew idiom: according to his arm. In Egypt, God's arm was stretched out to save (Deut. 4:34); the prince's arm, like Pharaoh's arm, is stretched out to oppress.

The rest of the list applies to everyone (22:7-12; cf. Pentateuch):

1. Misuse of power of office by shedding blood (22:6).

2. Contempt for father and mother (22:7; Exod. 20:12; Lev. 19:3).

3. Extortion from the resident alien (22:7; Exod. 23:9; Lev. 19:33-34).

4. Wronging the orphan and the widow (22:7; Exod. 22:22).

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5. Despising holy things, profaning sabbaths (22:8; Exod. 20:8-11).

6. Slander for the purpose of destroying people (22:9; Lev. 19:16).

7. Eating upon the mountains (idolatrous worship, 22:9; cf. 18:6).

8. Committing lewdness (sexual sins, 22:9b-11):

uncovering father's nakedness (sex with father's wife; Lev. 20:11);

having sex during wife's menstrual periods (cf. note on 18:6);

having sex with a neighbor's wife (Lev. 20:10),

a daughter-in-law (Lev. 20:12), or

a sister or father's daughter (half-sister, Lev. 20:17).

9. Accepting bribes to shed blood (22:12; Deut. 27:25).

10. Taking interest and monetary gain by extortion (22:12; Lev. 25:36).

Ezekiel here details the two abominations noted in 22:2-5. Most of the list is included in chapter 18 (see notes there; cf. 33:15). It compares especially with prohibitions in the holiness code (Lev. 17-26, esp. chap. 19). Ezekiel enlarges on sexual laws because illicit sexual relations threaten the integrity of the family. Note throughout this list the words in you (22:6, 7ac, 9ab, lOab, 11, 12), within you, in your midst (22:7b, 9c; cf. 22:3).

Ezekiel sums up the list with the Lord's statement, You have forgotten me (22:12; cf. Hos. 2:13). To remember God is to respond to God's gracious acts by covenant faithfulness (cf. Ps. 78:7, 11, 32-39; esp. 78:35, 42, NIV). Relationship with God provides structure and power for doing justice.

22:13-16 Exile as Discipline

Striking the hands together is here a gesture of contempt (22:13; cf. 6:11; 21:14, 17; 25:6). As Jerusalem was made a disgrace and mockery before the nations (22:4), so exile among the nations is threatened after detailing these violations (22:15). Two ancient texts present divergent ideas in 22:16. The Hebrew text, followed by the NIV, designates Israel as the one who is profaned (or, defiled). The Greek Version, followed by the NRSV, designates the Lord as tarnished by Israel's punishment: And I shall be profaned through you. God will suffer universal humiliation because of Israel's exile.

Israel Has Become Refuse 22:17-22

This second speech metaphorically compares Israel to dross which is separated out from silver (?) in a smelting furnace (cf. Jer. 6:27-30; Isa. 1:22, 25; Zech. 13:9; Mal. 3:2-3). Except for gold, all of the metals used in ancient Israel are here named (22:18). Bronze is an alloy

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made of tin and copper. Numerous ancient smelting furnaces have been found, along the Arabah, south of the Dead Sea (IDB, 3:366). When smelting for silver, other metals were left inside the furnace as dross (cf. NIV).

Ezekiel interprets his metaphor by the words gather and melt (22:19-20). Babylon's siege of Jerusalem is near. As miners gather metallic ore into the refiner's furnace to retrieve the silver, so the Lord will gather Israel into Jerusalem to blow the fire of purification upon them. Though Israel is all dross (22:19), they will still recognize the Lord as a moral divinity (22:22). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

A Polluted Land 22:23-31

This third speech is directed against the land: its princes (22:25), priests (22:26), officials (22:27), prophets (22:28), and people of the land (22:29; cf. Hos. 4:4-6; Mic. 3; Isa. 9:13-17; Jer. 8:1-3).

After a dry summer, rain in Israel washes the dusty trees and plants, and a green world appears. This cleansing has not happened to the land in the day of wrath, of indignation (22:24; cf. 22:31). Punishment has little affect on Israel's behavior. Princes may refer to the whole succession of kings who are guilty of murder and extortion. They have devoured human lives (22:25; cf. 22:6; 19:3), taken treasure, and made many widows (cf. note on 19:7). For the duty of the priests (22:26), see 44:15-31 (esp. 44:23). Jerusalem's lesser officials act much like the princes (22:27; cf. 22:25). For prophets daubing with whitewash (22:28), see notes on 13:10. The people of the land may be the landed gentry, those owning property and expected to share with the poor and resident alien (22:29; 7:27; 12:19).

The Lord has a final justification to destroy the land (22:30). God sought but could find no one among them, among all the named leadership groups, who would repair the wall and stand in the breach before [God] on behalf of the land (cf. 13:5 and TBC below).

Because it is so sure, God's judgment is said to come in the past tense: Therefore I have poured out my indignation, . . . have consumed, . . . have returned (22:31; cf. 22:22; 36:18). Or the verbs may be translated as prophetic future: So I will pour out my wrath (NIV). For a literal sense of time, the future is preferable unless this portion is first prophesied after God's indignation brought the fall of the city (22:31; cf. 22:24). Again the Lord promises to return their conduct upon their heads (cf. 9:10; 11:21; 16:43).

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The Text in Biblical Context

Standing in the Breach Against God

''Why will God not act to save the city?" Though this expectation may expose the mood of his hearers, Ezekiel's mood asks the opposite: "How can God do other than destroy it?" While Job, some Psalms, and several of the prophets challenged the justice of God's retribution, there is no whisper of such a challenge in the book of Ezekiel. With the majority of the prophets, he agrees with the varied and subtle arguments of Job's three friends, that judgment comes upon humanity because of its guilt.

Ezekiel posits that all of Judah's leadership has abused its power over the people: princes, priests, lower officials, prophets, and landed gentry. His indictment directed at the landed applies to all: They oppress the poor and needy and mistreat the alien, denying them justice (22:29, NIV). God demands a just society, in which the power of the strong benefits the socially and economically disadvantaged.

But God is also love; God must act for the sake of the Name (cf. "For My Name's Sake," TBC on 20:1-44). Therefore, God looked for a way out, for one person among these leaders who would stand up to the divine wrath: I looked for a man among them who would build up a barricade, who could stand before me in the breach to defend the land from ruin; but I found no such man (22:30, NEB).

This is military language, appropriate for a city which has fallen at the end of a siege because its wall has been breached (2 Kings 25:34). But God is not looking for a warrior to save the city. The transformation of military language happened already with the prophet Isaiah: the breach in the wall is caused by despising the word of God, by "trust in oppression and deceit" (Isa. 30:12-13; cf. 58:9b-12).

Ezekiel uses similar language to expose false prophets who speak out of their own imagination, with no vision from God: You have not gone up into the breaches, or repaired a wall for the house of Israel, so that it might stand in battle on the day of the Lord (13:5). They have failed to build a wall by proclaiming God's judgment against a people who have lost their integrity; they have failed to save them by inducing them to repent (13:22). And they have failed to stand in the breach against God's judgment by interceding for the people.

The psalmist used this military language in telling about Moses after Israel worshiped the golden calf (cf. Exod. 32:31-34):

They made a calf in Horeb

and worshiped a cast image. . . .

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They forgot God, their Savior. . . .

Therefore he said he would destroy them

had not Moses, his chosen one,

stood in the breach before him,

to turn away his wrath from destroying them. (Ps. 106:19-23)

Ezekiel says elsewhere that even the greatest intercessors are inadequate to save Israel. Yet his final indictment against Jerusalem is that there is no one among the recognized leaders of the city to stand in the breach in behalf of the land (22:30; cf. 14:12-20; Jer. 15:1). This military language of standing in the breach is not found in the NT; yet Paul writes of Jesus as an adequate intercessor (Rom. 8:3335; cf. Heb. 7:25). The new covenant acknowledges that judgment for some may be inevitable, not because there is no adequate savior, but because this Savior is rejected (John 3:14; Heb. 2:1-3; Rev. 22:11).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Dies Irae

"That Day of Wrath" (Latin: Dies irae) was reputedly written in the thirteenth century by Thomas of Celano. It expresses the dour mood of Europe during the Middle Ages:

That day of wrath, that dreadful day,

When heav'n and earth shall pass away!

What power shall be the sinner's stay?

How shall he meet that dreadful day?

(The Mennonite Hymnal, 87, trans. by Walter Scott)

This mood may return to our planet in the first decades of the twenty-first century, if the prediction of Thomas D. Kaplan in "The Coming Anarchy" is correct (Kaplan: 44-76). He projects that what is happening in West Africa and in Somalia is a foreshadowing of the future for much of the entire globe: chaos in government; new mutations and spread of AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; and the prevalence of war. Scarcity, overpopulation, disease, crime, and tribalism "are rapidly destroying the social fabric of our planet."

But biblical faith does not give way to impersonal powers. "That Day of Wrath" in its later 18 stanzas appeals to Christ as "the sinner's stay, tho' heav'n and earth shall pass away." People in all lands need again to hear the good news of a gospel which breaks down the wall separating Jew and Gentile, transcends nationalism and tribalism,

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levels the mountains and valleys of economic disparity, and proclaims freedom to the prisoner.

There are beacons lights in the darkness of the past which might orient the church for the future. One example: because the treaties ending World War II rejected the vindictive policy ending World War I for the more enlightened endeavor of helping the enemy, our world enjoys the three great economic arenas of Europe, the Pacific Rim, and the North American continent. By propagating Christ's gospel of goodwill to all religions across open trade borders, the church may hope that this good news of redemption will reshape the chaos of the present and immediate future.

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Cycle of Diplomacy: From Egypt to Egypt:

Ezekiel 23:1-49

Preview

Of all the many surveys of Israel's history in the Bible, Ezekiel's story here is unique; he alone details Israel's military alliances with the great powers. Although the great prophets often opposed specific alliances, only Ezekiel brings the story together. In the form of an allegory, he declares that by these alliances, Israel has continuously breached its alliance with the Lord.

Ezekiel's allegory is traumatic and extreme, problematic, and even offensive to those of us who are sympathetic to the modern feminist movement. And its bawdy imagery is likely offensive to Ezekiel's own hearers; like some modern art, it is meant to shock. Ezekiel's purpose is to awaken the jaded sensitivities of the faith community to the prophetic abhorrence of military culture. His coarseness is deliberate, chosen to point up the extreme incompatibility of this culture with the covenant tradition of Israel.

As a radical protest against militarism, Ezekiel's allegory takes its place with the world's great social-political critiques. His survey of Israel's diplomatic harlotry tops off a consistent, steady censure of nearly two centuries of prophetic literature against Israel's military treaties with the great powers.

Ezekiel ends his story by referring to king Zedekiah's treaty with Egypt (23:19-21). Since by this act, Zedekiah violates his vassal relationship with the king of Babylon, it is likely that Nebuchadnezzar has already set in motion the march of his army against Jerusalem. If so, the date is 589-88 B.C. [Chronology, p. 377.]

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Outline

Diplomacy of Sister Nations with Near Eastern Powers, 23:1-35

23:1-4

The Two Nations and Egypt

23:5-10

Samaria's Diplomacy with Assyria

23:11-21

Jerusalem's Corrupt Diplomatic Relations

Diplomacy with Assyria, 23:11-13

Diplomacy with Babylon, 23:14-18

Diplomacy with Egypt, 23:19-21

23:22-35

Four Threats of Judgment Against Jerusalem

Declaring Abominations of the Sister Nations, 23:36-49

23:36-42

Abominations of the Two Nations

23:43-49

Judgment Threats Against the Two Nations

Explanatory Notes

Diplomacy of Sister Nations with Near Eastern Powers 23:1-35

This is the third of Ezekiel's surveys of Israel's history (chaps. 16, 20, 23). Like the first, the story is couched in an allegory of a marriage relationship between God and Israel. The closest comparisons to the structure of the Mosaic covenant are the treaty forms defining relationships between ancient Near Eastern states. Yet the sensitivity of God's relationship with Israel is expressed in the Bible by the analogy of the marriage relationship (cf. Jer. 3:6-14; Hos. 1-3; ABD, 1:1195). Hosea (8:9) has already evaluated Israel's military diplomacy in these terms, but Ezekiel presents this appraisal in an extended survey.

23:1-4 The Two Nations and Egypt

Represented by their capitals Samaria and Jerusalem (22:4), Israel and Judah have become prostitutes in Egypt; they were unfaithful to God from their youth (23:3). Unlike Jeremiah (2:2), who emphasizes the devotion of Israel's youth, Ezekiel stresses Israel's faithlessness from the beginning. Here Ezekiel is speaking of Israel's origins; they were not actually two nations in Egypt. His inspiration may have come from Jeremiah's allegory of the sister nations (Jer. 3:6-10).

Oholah and Oholibah are names with a common component meaning "tent" (23:4; cf. Esau's wife, Oholibamah, Gen. 36:2). Some interpreters see significance in the slight differences in the names. However, Ezekiel's point may be to emphasize both as nomadic tent

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people; neither belong to Egypt.

They became mine refers to the Mosaic covenant (23:4; cf. Exod. 34). Even though the sisters bore sons and daughters, Ezekiel (in accord with the presentation of the biblical God elsewhere) breaks with a common motif of Near Eastern myth: he does not use the analogy of sexual intercourse of a god with a goddess or with human beings (cf. Gen. 6:1-4). It is strange, however, that Ezekiel the priest, strongly influenced by the Levitical law of holiness, uses the analogy of marriage with two sisters, which violates that law (Lev. 18:18). Perhaps he is critical of this schism in Israel's history.

Most commentators assume that Israel's playing the whore in Egypt (23:2) refers to the worship of Egyptian gods instead of referring to political relations with that empire, as does the rest of the analogy. Perhaps so. But Ezekiel does not hesitate to criticize what elsewhere the biblical story may condone. Perhaps Ezekiel is critical of the last of the threefold development of the ancestral history from a simple family (Abraham-Sarah stories, Gen. 12-25), to tribes (Jacob-Rebekah-Leah stories, Gen. 25-36), and then integration with the Egyptian state (Joseph stories, Gen. 37-50; cf. Westermann: 23-30). Compare Genesis 37:5-11 and 47:13-25 for imperialistic concepts in the Joseph story which the Mosaic vision rejected. On the other hand, there may be little difference in Ezekiel's mind between such violations of biblical justice and the worship of the gods which uphold such infringements.

23:5-10 Samaria's Diplomacy with Assyria

Samaria played the whore while she was mine (23:5). This means that Samaria violated its covenant with the Lord by its military covenants with Assyria. She lusted after her lovers the Assyrians, warriors, . . . governors and commanders, . . . horsemen (23:5-6). An example of such involvements of Samaria with Assyria in the eighth century is found in 2 Kings 15:19-20. Hosea also opposed Samaria's military alliance with Assyria (Hos. 5:136:6; cf. TBC below).

Besides unfaithfulness by yielding to the allure of the Assyrian military machine, Samaria defiled herself with all the idols of everyone for whom she lusted (23:7). The point is not merely that religious rituals are a part of making ancient diplomacy, but that to lust for military power leads to the worship of power-oriented gods (cf. 23:2-4). Samaria's fascination with the military powers and the gods of such powers was a continuation of its unfaithfulness practiced since Egypt

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(23:8). This attraction to violent power is as seductive as illicit sex, the analogy which Ezekiel uses.

The word therefore introduces the Lord's judgment (23:9). The Lord is not a military power-god as was Ashur, the god of Assyria, whose emperor was leader of the armed services and Ashur's servant (ANET: 289-301). Yet Israel's monotheism means that the God of Israel is Lord even of the power-oriented empires (cf. Rom. 13:1-7) and of Israel's relations with them: I delivered her into the hands of her lovers. This relationship, however, is not a marriage but a repeat of Egyptian oppression. Samaria became a byword among women, that is, among the smaller contemporary states such as the Moabites, Edomites, and Ammonites (23:10).

23:11-21 Jerusalem's Corrupt Diplomatic Relations

Diplomacy with Assyria 23:11-13

Ezekiel dealt with Samaria's past faithlessness in order to address Jerusalem's whorings (23:11). These were worse than those of her sister, Samaria. The Assyrian military description of 23:12 repeats that of 23:6; Ezekiel wants his audience to get the point that it is military diplomacy to which God objects. Both Samaria and Jerusalem took the same way, the road to Assyria (23:13; cf. Hos. 5:13, JB). Both the Samaritan king Menachem and the Jerusalem king Ahaz appealed to Assyria for political help (2 Kings 15:19; 16:7). Isaiah, like Hosea, opposed this policy (Isa. 7-8; cf. TBC below).

Diplomacy with Babylon 23:14-18

Jerusalem does worse than Samaria by not learning anything from the fall of Samaria. It carried its whorings further by military diplomacy with the Chaldeans (23:14). The Chaldeans were an ancient nomadic people who moved into Babylon and took over leadership. Ezekiel describes them as male figures carved on the wall, either of a palace or a temple, where murals were often portrayed.

Babylon pursued such diplomacy not in Jerusalem's interests but to further its own ambition for empire. Jerusalem, disillusioned, turned from them in disgust (23:17). More important, Jerusalem has violated the Lord's personal and morally demanding covenant by its impersonal, power-oriented covenant with Babylon. Hence, the Lord says, I turned in disgust from her, as I had turned from her sister (23:18). Personal relationship with the Lord is incompatible with power politics.

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Diplomacy with Egypt 23:19-21

To cap its faithlessness, Jerusalem increased its whorings by a military treaty with Egypt, thus violating its treaty with Babylon (23:19; cf. 17:11-18). Treaties with Egypt were Jerusalem's ancient resort to escape political domination from Mesopotamia (cf. Isa. 30:1-5; 31:1-3). Under leadership of king Zedekiah, Jerusalem came full circle, remembering . . . when she played the whore in the land of Egypt (23:19; cf. 23:2-3).

Egypt's sexual organs were like those of donkeys, its emission of semen was like that of stallions (23:20). By this astonishing language, Ezekiel describes the gross lewdness of power politics and Jerusalem's fascination with it (23:21). Furthermore, his figure may warn that the mismatch of such an unequal yoke would be a rape of death for Jerusalem.

23:22-35 Four Threats of Judgment Against Jerusalem

Each of the four threats against Jerusalem is introduced by the messenger formula, Thus says the Lord God (23:22, 28, 32, 35). Note the change from the story's third-person pronoun she (23:220) to the second-person pronoun in the end of the story (23:21) and in the threat against you (23:22-35). The Pekod (23:23) are identified as an ancient people incorporated into Assyria (cf. IDB, 3:709). Shoa and Koa are unidentified. But all these, including the Assyrians, were incorporated into the Babylonian empire by the late seventh century, and their men served in that army. Note again the nearly literal repetition of the description of the military personnel (23:23; cf. 23:6, 12). Ezekiel wants to be sure his audience gets the point that the Lord opposes Israel's integration with this military culture.

The first-person-singular and third-person-plural pronouns are interchanged, referring to the Lord and the Babylonian army: I will, I will (23:22); they shall, they shall (23:24ab); I will, they shall (23:24cd); I will, they may, they shall, they shall, they shall (23:2526); I will (23:27). In this first threat against Jerusalem, God will permit the nations to judge Judah according to their ordinances (23:24, their standards, NIV), which show little mercy.

God's purpose is to put an end to Jerusalem's fascination with political power, a fascination which from the beginning of its history, it has brought from the land of Egypt (23:27). To lift up your eyes (RSV) is an expression elsewhere used of trust in idols (18:12). Here it shows trust in Egypt, from which God will deliver Israel. Again, this

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suggests the close relationship between idolatry and power politics (cf. Ps. 121:1-2).

The second threat is a summary statement and says little new (23:28-31). Some interpreters regard Ezekiel's statement as completed with 23:27. However, repetition is characteristic of his style.

The third threat is a song of the cup of judgment (23:32-34; cf. Isa. 51:17, 22-23; Jer. 25:15-29). A fitting climax of the allegory, it is the cup of Samaria which Jerusalem must now drink (23:33). As Samaria fell in 722 B.C., so now Jerusalem will fall, and for the same reason: both trusted violent political power for salvation instead of their covenant Lord.

The fourth threat gets to the heart of the issue (23:35; cf. 22:12). Jerusalem has forgotten God, has violently rejected God (cast me behind your back), and therefore must bear the consequences of its faithlessness. To forget God is to reject God's saving acts in Israel's political history (cf. 1 Sam. 12:7-11) and instead to choose self-help (1 Sam. 12:12-13).

Declaring Abominations of the Sister Nations 23:36-49

In this section, the allegory is so equated with diplomacy that some interpreters think the allegory has degenerated into a polemic against evil women, a product of a later disciple (Zimmerli, 1979:491). Fohrer and Eichrodt, however, regard it as a continuation of the allegory, a summation whose declaration of abominations is directed against both sisters (cf. 16:2; 20:4). It is also a theodicy justifying God's judgments which have already come upon Samaria and which are about to come upon Jerusalem. For a discussion of human sacrifice, see notes on 20:26.

If this interpretation is correct, the women are the small, non-Israelite nations around Israel (23:48; cf. 23:10). Even they might learn by the judgment upon the sisters not to trust in military power.

The Text in Biblical Context

No Military Alliances!

Ezekiel 23 tops off a century and a half of prophetic preaching against military alliances with Near Eastern empires. Hosea, eighth century, includes at least four texts indicting Samaria's alliances with Egypt and Assyria (5:86:6; 7:8-16; 8:1-14; 12:1-14):

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When Ephraim saw his sickness,

and Judah his wound,

then Ephraim went to Assyria

and sent to the great king.

But he is not able to cure you

or heal your wound. (Hos. 5:13)

In Hosea's day, politically insignificant Israel lay in the path of the westward-expanding Assyrian empire. What is its political salvation? Five times Hosea links the ancient empire of Egypt with Israel's salvation story (2:15; 11:1; 12:13-14; 13:4). The Lord who saved Israel from Egypt is also Israel's political savior in the present situation:

Yet I have been the Lord your God

ever since the land of Egypt;

you know no God but me,

and besides me there is no savior. (13:4)

To send ambassadors to Egypt is not political salvation; instead, it is the end of the salvation story, a return to the slavery from which God saved Israel at the beginning.

The book of Hosea closes with a liturgy of repentance (14:1-8), a liturgy which includes this confession:

Assyria cannot save us;

we will not mount war-horses.

We will never again say "Our gods"

to what our own hands have made,

For in you the fatherless find compassion. (Hos. 14:3, NIV)

For Hosea, the expanding military power of Assyria is no problem at all! Israel's political problem is its faithlessness to the Lord, the compassionate One who rescues the powerless orphan. Israel's sin is that it looks to Assyria and military hardware rather than to the Lord for political salvation, and that it makes its own gods, which symbolize these economic power values of national self-interest.

Hosea ends this liturgy with God's promise to Israel of economic prosperity. Although Israel has rejected God and is now exposed in the path of the expanding Assyrian empire, Hosea's last word is not death but life. This life will not be a bare existence but abundance; the prophet uses nine metaphors of fertility to describe Israel's end. The key to this new age of prosperity is what Hosea calls for throughout his texts: the return of Israel to its Lord and to the Lord's political way. The Lord will do for Israel what Assyria and the great powers cannot

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do: ''I will heal their disloyalty" (14:4). For Hosea, this is the solution to Israel's political problem.

What the Northern prophet Hosea proclaimed, with a theology centering on Egypt and Sinai, Isaiah his Southern contemporary reiterated, with a theology centering on Zion and the Davidic dynasty. During his long ministry, Isaiah faced down the threat of three Assyrian emperors: Tiglath-pileser, 735-733 B.C.; Sargon, 715-712; and Sennacherib, 705-703. The prophet called for Judah to remain neutral among the human political powers.

Isaiah opposed king Ahaz's resolve to enter into a military alliance with Tiglath-pileser against the western coalition of Samaria and Damascus (Isa. 6-8). The prophet agreed with his king that he should not join this western coalition. Then the coalition threatened to replace Ahaz with a stooge, Tabeel (Isa. 7:6), to secure Judah's cooperation against the Assyrian advance. Isaiah equally opposed Ahaz's joining with Assyria against this western coalition (cf. 2 Kings 16:79). As an alternative policy, Isaiah counseled King Ahaz to trust the Lord:

If you do not stand firm in faith,

you shall not stand at all. (Isa. 7:9b, NIV)

Isaiah understood the political odds that king Ahaz faced. He compared the political power of the Lord with "the waters of Shiloah, that flow gently," the flow from the Jerusalem spring, Gihon, over which any schoolchild could leap. This the prophet contrasted with the political wallop of Assyria, "the mighty flood waters of the Euphrates River" (Isa. 8:6-7, NRSV/NEB). Yet Isaiah believed that the gentle Shiloah-type Lord also controls power politics and will bring against Ahaz the "flood waters of the Euphrates, the king of Assyria" (Isa. 8:7, NEB). The political power in which Jerusalem trusts will not save the city but will do it in.

Isaiah walked naked and barefoot as a "sign and a portent" to counter king Hezekiah's temptation to ally Jerusalem with Egypt against the western advance of Sargon the Assyrian (715-712 B.C.; Isa. 20:1-6). "In that day the inhabitants of this coastland will say, 'See, this is what has happened to those in whom we hoped and to whom we fled for help and deliverance from the king of Assyria! And we, how shall we escape?' " (Isa. 20:6; cf. 30:1-5).

In 705-703 B.C., Isaiah faced down Sennacherib's threat:

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Alas for those who go down to Egypt for help,

and who rely on horses,

who trust in chariots because they are many

and in horsemen because they are very strong,

but do not look to the Holy One of Israel

or consult the Lord! . . .

The Egyptians are human, and not God;

their horses are flesh, and not spirit.

When the Lord stretches out his hand,

the helper will stumble, and the one helped will fall,

and they will all perish together. (31:1-3)

After rejecting Isaiah's counsel, king Hezekiah, threatened by Sennacherib's field commander, came crawling back to Isaiah for help. Isaiah still promised him the Lord's intervention (Isa. 36-37; cf. 2 Kings 18:1319:37). The biblical record has its difficulties, and historians still debate how to understand these events. But on one crucial point both biblical and Assyrian accounts agree: Sennacherib did not take Jerusalem. Sennacherib had to be satisfied to paint on the wall of his palace his assault and defeat of the western garrison city, Lachish, rather than the defeat of Judah's capital itself (cf. ANEP: nos. 371-373).

Sennacherib boasted in the Annals of his third campaign, "As for Hezekiah the Jew, who did not submit to my yoke, 46 of his strong, walled cities . . . I besieged and took. . . . Himself, like a caged bird I shut up in Jerusalem his royal city" (Luckenbill: 32-33; ANET: 288). But he did not take the city. What happened? Apart from the statement in Isaiah 37:36-37, history has left no explanation (cf. 2 Kings 19:35-36). Isaiah did not earn his reputation as a prophet by making a false prophecy. His promise of the Lord's intervention, even at the last moment to a disobedient Hezekiah, came to pass (cf. Isa. 31:4-5; 37:33-36; cf. 2 Kings 19:32-35).

Jeremiah, an older contemporary of Ezekiel, stood firm in the tradition of Hosea and Isaiah against military alliances:

What wrong did your ancestors find in me

that they went far from me,

and went after worthless things, and became worthless themselves?

They did not say, "Where is the Lord

who brought us up from the land of Egypt." (Jer. 2:5b-6a)

Samaria had fallen because they relied upon "worthless things" to deliver them from Assyria rather than the Lord, who had delivered them from Egypt. These "worthless things" may be "worthless idols,"

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as translated by NIV; or they may be Egypt, a worthless "broken reed" (cf. Isa. 36:6). Twice again this chapter points to the Lord as an alternative for Israel's trust rather than Egypt or Assyria (Jer. 2:17-18, 36-37).

Ezekiel stood in solidarity with these great prophets. Although each has his own theological emphasis, they speak with one voice in their opposition to military treaties. Ezekiel's unique contribution is a historical survey of Israel's and Judah's violations of this principle, from the Egyptian sojourn to his own times. From the beginning, Israel and Judah became trapped in Egyptian military values. Israel continued this entrapment with Assyrian values, and Judah with the military values of Assyria, Babylonia, and again of Egypt. Their diplomatic history begins in slavery and ends in slavery.

The Text in the Life of the Church

The New Order

The prophets' rejection of military diplomacy strikes at the modern concept of a peace based on a balance of military power among the nations. It also raises questions about the Christian's involvement in that kind of politics. Many Christians migrated to the New World to escape such politics.

Because this issue is still with us, interpreters are divided over what the four prophets who opposed military alliances were really saying (TBC above). One interpretation is that prophetic inspiration made it possible for them to advocate wiser political decisions than did their Near Eastern contemporaries. This view proposes that the prophets did not have a different politics; they only made wiser decisions on the basis of the old politics!

A second interpretation is that the prophets broke from ancient power politics on the basis of a new religious experience. This was not merely a personal inward experience, but the public experience of all Israel: the experience of political salvation from state slavery in Egypt, and the establishment of a new law and order within covenant relationships at Sinai. The prophets entered personally into this new political experience and became its advocates at the time of their call.

A careful reading of the texts cited in TBC points to the validity of this second interpretation. But the first view is not to be discarded altogether. It is indeed wrong that the prophets merely made wiser choices on the basis of the old politics. However, it is not wrong that they made wiser political choices. The pacifism of these four proph-

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ets is shown by their reliance upon prophetic word rather than sword to meet the crisis of Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian imperialism. This was the only choice Israel could make if it was not to be broken and swallowed up by these three great empires.

However, their message is not just one of expediency, and more than Israel's own security and continuity are involved here. The gospel of the new politics of the prophets is intended not only for Israel; it is also for the nations. This is what Ezekiel means when he reports the Lord's words: The nations shall know that I am the Lord (23:49). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] Trust in the Lord rather than in armaments is the wave of the future. This is what Isaiah envisions when he says that all nations shall choose the word of God to settle their disputes, and that because of this, the sword will become irrelevant (Isa. 2:2-4). Here is the new world order that Paul proclaims when he declares that Jesus by death and resurrection has defeated the powers (Col. 2:15).

In the summer of 1990, the wall dividing Eastern and Western Europe was bulldozed down, not by the West but by the Eastern powers themselves. This demonstrates that great international events can take place in mysterious ways which modern journalists and statesmen do not discern beforehand. Major social and political change can happen without the use of a gun. The involvement of the church in both Poland and East Germany was important for these momentous events (Sawatsky).

Subsequent events make clear that a stable peace is far from established in our troubled world. But the church should learn the lesson of the Berlin Wall: political change can happen by means other than the gun. With Ezekiel, the church should declare its abominations and confess its idolatrous alliances with military power throughout its history. It needs to affirm again the basis for its peace, the leadership of "Jesus Christ, and him crucified" (1 Cor. 2:2). Can the church believe that faithfulness will make a difference, that only by the leadership of this crucified One is there hope for the nations?

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The Pot Boils and a Woman Dies:

Ezekiel 24:1-27

Preview

Again in this last chapter of part 2 of his work, Ezekiel the sentinel blares his trumpet to warn the exiles that this is the imminent end of the city, the end of the first phase, "The Lord's Victory over Arrogant Jerusalem and Judah" (chaps. 4-24; cf. "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17). Ezekiel 24 is marked by the death of Ezekiel's wife, a loss which signals the tragic climax to the accelerating pace of chapters 21-24, "From Pantomiming the Sword's March Toward Jerusalem to Pantomiming the Fall of the City" (cf. OVERVIEW of 4:124:27).

The acceleration begins when Ezekiel depicts in song and pantomime the march of the sword from Babylon to Jerusalem (20:4521:32 = chap. 21, Heb.). Then the prophet pours out three oracles of God's wrath on the bloody and idolatrous city (chap. 22). Next, Ezekiel declares the abominable diplomacy of the two sister nations, their appalling integration into the military culture of the Near East (chap. 23). Finally, the Lord tells Ezekiel, Write down the name of this day, this very day. The king of Babylon has laid siege to Jerusalem this very day (24:2; Jan. 588 B.C.; cf. Greenberg, 1983:8). [Chronology, 377.]

This day of the siege forms the terminal point toward which the oracles of part 2 are aiming (chaps. 4-24). By his allegory in the Song of the Pot, Ezekiel solemnizes the beginning of the siege (24:3-14); the tragic death of his wife signals its outcome (24:15-24).

Ezekiel commemorates the death of his wife by a pantomime of

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life as usual! Part 2 ends by projecting the report of the city's fall and giving a second sign, the loosening of Ezekiel's tongue. This projection will correct Ezekiel's personal disorder, an ailment which marks the end of three major parts of the book (3:26-27; 24:27; 33:21-22).

Outline

Introduction: The Date of Jerusalem's Siege, 24:1-3a

The Song of the Pot, 24:3b-14

24:3-5

Song of the Boiling Pot

24:6-8

Song of the Encrusted Pot

24:9-12

Song of the Hopeless Pot

24:13-14

Prose Conclusion

Sign upon Sign, 24:15-27

24:15-24

The First Sign: Death of Ezekiel's Wife

24:25-27

The Second Sign: Ezekiel's Restored Speech

Explanatory Notes

Introduction: The Date of Jerusalem's Siege 24:1-3a

The introduction includes the revelation formula [p. 381], the date (24:1) [Chronology, p. 377], the command to write down the name of this day (24:2), the announcement of the siege which the day signifies, and the command to speak an allegory to rebellious Israel (24:3a). For a discussion of allegory, see notes on 17:2.

The date is important: this day, this very day (24:2). Though in Babylon, hundreds of miles from the event in Jerusalem, and lacking instant communication, Ezekiel names the day. It is to be written down so that the exiles can verify it as a genuine prophecy (cf. Deut. 18:22). Isaiah likewise is told to write down his rejected prophecy for future reference (Isa. 8:16-17).

When Ezekiel first names this date, the exiles witness his announcement. Today we have the written witness. Commentators have taken various stances toward this witness, saying the date was inserted after the event, perhaps from 2 Kings 25:1; or that Ezekiel was in Jerusalem on the day that it fell and prophesied from there. But Ezekiel and his disciples do not cover up occasions when Ezekiel's prophecy against Tyre fails to materialize (notes on 29:17-

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21). The possibility of extrasensory experience, claimed by the revelation formula, should not be discounted. Oppressed communities like the exiles devise their own ways of monitoring important events such as the western march of Nebuchadnezzar's army (21:18-22). Their questions are, Whom will the army strike? When?

The exiles can be deterred from participating in the Jerusalem revolt only by the authority of a prophet whom his hearers are convinced is genuine (cf. Jer. 28; 29:8-32). This prophecy and the preceding ones are intended to limit this rebellion and give the exiles a positive vision of another alternative. Ezekiel writes down the date, which later they can verify.

The Song of the Pot 24:3b-14

The song of the boiling pot is supplemented by two statements about its corrosion (24:6-8, 9-12). Because arguments for the poetic character of 24:13-14 are not very convincing, I follow the NIV structuring.

24:3b-5 Song of the Boiling Pot

This song includes no statement on judgment. Standing alone, it might be used to celebrate a feast. In the context of the introductory event, however, its negative connotation needs no comment. For a similar metaphor of a pot, used in a proverb, see 11:3, 7, 11.

Micah used the metaphor of a pot to criticize Judah's rulers,

who tear the skin off my people,

and the flesh off their bones.

who . . . break their bones in pieces,

and chop them up like meat in a kettle,

like flesh in a cauldron. (Mic. 3:1-3)

Ezekiel's pot signifies Jerusalem. As the city's upper classes have oppressed the people, so leaders and people will be oppressed by Babylon.

24:6-8 Song of the Encrusted Pot

Ezekiel uses the type of language about Jerusalem which Nahum, his near contemporary, used of Nineveh: "Ah! City of bloodshed, utterly deceitful, full of bootyno end to the plunder!" (3:1). For a sim-

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ilar indictment of Jerusalem as a bloody city (24:6), see 22:2 (cf. 7:23; 9:9; 22:6-13). Since this is a copper kettle (24:11), the translation rust is hardly appropriate (24:6, 12). The Hebrew refers to a kind of corrosion. Because there is no remedy, the pot is to be emptied of meat, piece by piece (24:6). Jerusalem will be vacated.

The prophet follows the lament, Woe, with its reason: for the blood she shed, perhaps both through internal violence and bloodshed on battlefields (24:6-7). The concept of blood crying from the ground appears elsewhere (Gen. 4:10; Job 16:18; Isa. 26:21b; Heb. 12:24; cf. Rev. 6:9-10). According to law, even animal blood is to be covered with earth (Lev. 17:13). First, Jerusalem placed it on a bare rock, preventing it from being covered (24:7). Then the Lord exposed it on a bare rock so that it may not be covered (24:8).

24:9-12 Song of the Hopeless Pot

In this third song, the pronoun I is emphasized (24:9, 12). Note the verbs in 24:10 (KJV): heap, kindle, consume, spice, . . . and let the bones be burned. The Hebrew word translated pile (24:9) is translated "pyre" in Isaiah 30:33. After meat and bones are burned out (24:10), the pot is to continue on the coals, empty, in an attempt to cleanse it from corrosion (24:11).

24:13-14 Prose Conclusion

The Hebrew word translated lewdness (24:13) refers in varying contexts to murder, unchastity, incest, adultery. In Ezekiel, it is used mostly in a figurative sense for the whoredom of military treaties and idolatry (16:27, 43, 58; 22:9; 23:21, 27, 29, 35, 48-49).

These two verses stress God's action by including seven first-person-singular pronouns: I. Their antecedent, Lord, is repeated at the beginning and end of verse 14 to emphasize certainty (cf. 24:9). But modern versions should probably return to the KJV rendering of the final subject pronoun: According to thy doings, shall they judge thee (24:14, cf. NIV). The antecedent of they is Babylon's king and army (cf. 24:2). Ezekiel calls the exiles to resist the temptation to abet the revolt of the besieged city (cf. Jer. 21:1-10; 29:1-9). God will deal with Jerusalem as a woman deals with a useless, encrusted pot.

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Sign upon Sign 24:15-27

24:15-24 The First Sign: Death of Ezekiel's Wife

Delight of your/their eyes appears three times in this text, linking the delight of Ezekiel's eyes, his wife (24:15), with the delight of the people's eyes, their temple (24:21, 25). Elsewhere in the Bible, it is used of desirable things (1 Kings 20:6, "pleasant in thine eyes," KJV) and of people slain at Jerusalem's fall (Lam. 2:4). With one blow refers to the suddenness of death (24:16; cf. 11:13); this word is also used of slaughter in battle (1 Sam. 4:17) and of a plague (1 Sam. 6:4).

After announcing the death, the Lord restricts Ezekiel's mourning (24:16b-17). For similar restrictions upon Jeremiah, who was not to marry, see Jeremiah 16:2, 5-7. Ezekiel is permitted to sigh (24:17; cf. 9:4), but in a restricted way. Mourning usually includes loud wailing, the opposite of the silent sigh. The turban is a headdress worn by persons of special position, such as priests (44:18, linen turbans) and upper-class women (Isa. 3:20). For use of this Hebrew word as a symbol of celebration, see Isaiah 61:3, 10 ("garland," NRSV). The removal of sandals as an act of mourning is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible. Parallels for having a cover over part of the face appear in Micah 3:7 and Leviticus 13:45, and for eating the bread of mourners in Jeremiah 16:7.

Note the passage of time: morning, evening, next morning (24:18). In the morning he spoke; the next morning he did as directed. Note also the sequence: the Lord's word comes to Ezekiel (24:1517), Ezekiel does it (24:18), the people request the meaning of the strange action (24:19), and Ezekiel obliges with an interpretive oracle (24:21-24). This last oracle is the climax toward which the whole is moving.

The temple or sanctuary is the pride of your power (24:21; cf. 24:25). Your sons and your daughters whom you left behind reveals that when Ezekiel was exiled to Babylon (597 B.C.), families were split. Many children were left in Judah.

Ezekiel is a sign to the exiles (24:24, 27; cf. 12:6, 11; 4:3). What is meant by a sign is here stated: the exiles shall do just as he has done. The suffering which Ezekiel experiences in his vocation as a prophet is itself the message of what they will experience (cf. TBC below).

24:25-27 The Second Sign: Ezekiel's Restored Speech

Added to the first sign, the death of Ezekiel's wife (24:24), is this second sign, the restoration of his speech (24:27). While the first sign

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has already occurred, this sign is a promise, a sign that is to come (cf. Exod. 3:12). The first sign points to judgment and death; the second sign points to salvation and life. For its relationship to chapters 3 and 33, see PREVIEW.

These three verses emphasize the day to which both signs point, the signs of death and hope: on the day when the stronghold (sanctuary) is destroyed and their sons and daughters in Jerusalem are taken from them (24:25). On that day (24:26-27) the sign of hope will also occur. Its fulfillment is not on the day of Jerusalem's fall, the black day still lamented by the Jewish community (cf. Lam.), but months later, when a fugitive will bring the report to Ezekiel and he will again speak (33:21-22; 3:26-27).

The Text in Biblical Context

The Prophet's Pathos

The Jewish scholar, Abraham Heschel, in his book, The Prophets, emphasizes that a prophet is above all a person of pathos, one who in personal life shares God's pathos and suffering for the people. In this essay, the focus is on the prophets' pathos in family relationships.

The prophet of pathos par excellence is Hosea. His marriage, perhaps to a temple prostitute, was violated by unfaithful relationships (Hos. 1). These relationships become a type of Israel's faithlessness to the Lord, which will result in judgment upon Israel (2:1-13). Beyond judgment, however, the Lord restores Israel, and the children of unfaithfulness will be adopted as the Lord's children (2:14-23). Hosea is then told to restore his relationship to his wife (3:1, if NIV is correct), patterning family relationships after God's forgiveness of Israel. The pain of this family experience perhaps enables Hosea to fathom the deep pathos and suffering of God which evoke compassion in the divine relationship to Israel (cf. 11:8-9).

Isaiah's family was also deeply involved in his ministry, but in a positive way, in contrast to Hosea's family. Isaiah's wife was a prophetess (8:3); their son was named to convey the message to be given to rebellious king Ahaz (8:1-4; cf. 7:10-17). The involvement of this prophetic team was total.

Jeremiah's relationship to family life was negative; his vocation prohibited his having a family (16:1-4). This prohibition made him a "sign" to Israel, though the word itself is not used for the prophet. His childlessness pointed to the future death of Judah's children. Consid-

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ering the importance of children in ancient society, one can imagine the depth of Jeremiah's pathos in his ministry. In one of his ''confessions" he cries out, "I sat alone, because thy hand was upon me" (15:15-18, RSV). Because of social isolation, his pain was "unceasing" and his wound "incurable."

I have often reflected on the observation of a former student that "Ezekiel is a cold fish." A surface reading may substantiate this opinion. It took a "thick skin" and the development of several callouses to stand up for Yahwism (worship of Yahweh, the Lord) in a time of social chaos and religious disillusionment. However, one can sense something of the pathos and pain of Ezekiel's involvement when he cries out against the Lord's judgments (9:8; 11:13) and sighs inaudibly at the death of his wife (24:17).

The exiles' final acceptance of Ezekiel's message, their rejection of Zedekiah's revolt, was likely due to the extreme suffering which they sensed this prophet endured for his ministry. Even in judgment and death, that suffering became a sign of the pathos of Israel's God (24:15-24). And the end of that suffering became a sign of the compassionate forgiveness of God, the resurrection and restoration of God's people (24:25-27).

There is but a step from this prophetic and divine pathos to the divine pathos and compassion revealed in the unmarried status, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth; and the divine pathos revealed by those who take up the cross and follow him.

The Text in the Life of the Church

A Community of Pathos

Le Chambon is a small town in Southern France (cf. Hallie). It is made up largely of descendants of the Huguenots (Protestant followers of John Calvin), who in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries suffered terribly in France for their faith. During World War II these townspeople and their surrounding villages were inspired by André Trocmé, their pacifist pastor, to save 5,000 Jews from the Nazi Holocaust. The effort was largely a quiet and unassuming one; it became known as "the kitchen struggle of Le Chambon" because the action centered about the hundreds of kitchens in the area, where Jews were fed and information was exchanged. Magda Trocmé, a practical woman and wife of the pastor, led the way for the villagers by harboring Jews in her home.

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André Trocmé was not a popular minister in France during the war. When the Nazis marched in, he preached openly that the French should not resist them. When the Nazis were there, his word was, Don't cooperate with them. On the night of February 13, 1943, the Vichy police took him and two other leaders as prisoners to a concentration camp. As the three were marched down the street between two police officers, bystanders gathered and began to sing, "A mighty fortress is our God."

It was assumed that Trocmé would be shipped away to the death camps of Eastern Europe, never to be seen again. But after three months, a miracle happened; the three leaders were released, even though Trocmé refused to sign the document of his release because he objected to its demands.

André Trocmé and his community of suffering compassion prevailed, though their methods were quite different from those of the guerrilla fighters of their French compatriots. After the war, the state of Israel awarded Trocmé the "Medal of Righteousness," accompanied with a citation that he as "the spiritual leader of the village of Le Chambon, 'at peril of his life, saved Jews during the epoch of extermination' " (Hallie: 6). Trocmé, now dead, still speaks in his book, Jesus and the Nonviolent Revolution (Herald Press, 1974).

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PART 3

THE LORD'S VICTORY OVER ARROGANT NATIONS AND EMPIRES

Ezekiel 25:132:32

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Overview

If the outline of Ezekiel's book is related to the Song of the Sea (Exod. 15:1-18), then the oracles describing the Lord's victory over the nations are not an afterthought but the climax of the judgment oracles (cf. "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17; OVERVIEW of 1:13:27 and of 4:124:27). Like the Song, the oracles against Pharaoh consummate the oracles against the nations (Ezek. 29-32).

The Song of the Sea names other nations with Egypt. Likewise, in part 3 of Ezekiel are four states adjacent to Israel (chap. 25), the commercial empire(s) of Tyre and Sidon (chaps. 26-28), and Egyptseven nations, according to the editor (cf. Deut. 7:1; Exod. 15:14-15).

A purpose of Israel's deliverance from Egypt was that Pharaoh and his people might know the Lord (Exod. 3:14; 5:2; 7:5; 14:4, 18). Similarly, the purpose of these oracles against the nations is that they might know the I AM who delivers Israel. I am the Lord occurs nine times in the judgment oracles against the four small states, Tyre and Sidon (chaps. 25-28; 25:7, 11; etc.); and nine times in the judgment oracles against Egypt (chaps. 29-32; 29:9, 16, 21; etc.). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] The purpose of these judgment oracles against the nations is not only that they might know, but that Israel might know the Lord when, as in the time of Pharaoh, Israel is again called from these nations (28:24-26; 29:16, 21).

Thus the goal of the book of Ezekiel is not nationalistic but universal. Israel, rebel moral leader of the nations, is first done in by the nations; then the nations are judged, and Israel is delivered (28:24-26; 29:21). But besides recognizing the Lord because of judgment, do the nations have a positive future? There is just a hint: Egypt is saved, a lowly kingdom. Then there is Gogbut this anticipates the story!

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Oracles to the Nations: No Private Vengeance!:

Ezekiel 25:1-17

Preview

As the Lord's sentinel, Ezekiel stands on watch at the beginning of the judgment oracles against Jerusalem, and at the end of the oracles against the nations (3:16-27; 33:1-9; cf. "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17). These oracles against the nations climax his trumpet blast.

Although Ezekiel addresses these oracles to the nations, in the first instance he speaks them not to the nations but to the exiles. God has defined Israel by its vocation to the nations, a vocation now violated (5:5-6). Is everything over for the exiles? If Jerusalem will be defeated by the nations, the exiles must know how it is between God and the nations.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, some interpreters claimed that the prophets were in the employ of the Assyrians or Babylonians as propagandists against Israel, but this makes no sense. While not a nationalistic deity, Ezekiel's God is not a traitor to Israel either. The Lord chose Israel for an international purpose, to be a moral exemplar for the nations (cf. 5:5; OVERVIEW of 25:132:32). Though Israel has betrayed that purpose, it must yet be achieved.

Ezekiel is heir to Israel's ancient theology, "It is mine to avenge; I will repay," says the Lord (Deut. 32:35, NIV; cf. Rom. 12:19). In this ancient poem, the Lord speaks this threat to a "foolish nation" which boasted that it has defeated Israel (32:21, 27). But the poet proclaims

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that God who has defeated rebellious Israel through this foolish nation will in turn defeat the foolish nation:

For he will avenge the blood of his children,

and take vengeance on his adversaries. (Deut. 32:43)

These are not nice words, but they are words that Israel and the nations should not forget.

Outline

Two Oracles Against the Ammonites, 25:1-7

Oracle Against Moab, 25:8-11

Oracle Against Edom, 25:12-14

Oracle Against Philistia, 25:15-17

Explanatory Notes

The five oracles of this chapter are addressed to four nations. They form a crescent around Jerusalem, beginning in the northeast and ending in the southwest: Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Philistia. Undated (cf. 24:1; 26:1), chapter 25 begins this section which continues with oracles against Tyre, Sidon, and Egypt (chaps. 26-32), making a total of seven nations (cf. Deut. 7:1).

Two oracles are directed against Ammon. Introduced by a single revelation formula (25:1) [p. 381], the five oracles of chapter 25 have a common structure:

Nation

Ammon

Ammon

Moab

Edom

Philistia

Verses

25:1-5

25:6-7

25:8-11

25:12-14

25:15-17

Messenger Formula

3bc

6a

8a

12a

15a

Indictment

3d

6b

8b

12b

15b

Judgment

4-5a

7a-e

9-11a

13-14b

16-17a

Recognition Formula

5c

7f

11b

14c

17b

Two Oracles Against the Ammonites 25:1-7

Set your face toward is a command that Ezekiel face that nation against which he is to prophesy (25:2). Aha! (25:3) is spoken by the

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enemy in Psalm 35:19-21 to gloat over the misfortune of the "quiet in the land." Similarly, in 25:3, Ammon gloats over three misfortunes: the sanctuary, destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar's bodyguard (cf. 24:21; 2 Kings 25:8-9; Lam. 2:7); the desolated land of Israel (cf. Lam. 2:2); and the exiled house of Judah (cf. Lam. 1:3).

The people of the East are a nomadic people east of Syria and Palestine who live in tents (25:4), shepherd flocks, and travel by camels (25:5; cf. Gen. 29:1-4; Judg. 6:5; Jer. 49:28-29). Rabbah, capital of the ancient nation of Ammon, was situated on the present site of the city of Amman, capital of Jordan.

The indictment of the second oracle against Ammon (25:6-7) also expresses an attitude: You . . . rejoiced . . . against the land (25:6). Clapping the hands or striking them together and foot stamping can express scorn, anger, or rejoicing (cf. 6:11; 21:14, 17; 22:13; Isa. 55:12).

Oracle Against Moab 25:8-11

The Hebrew text reads, Moab and Seir (25:8, NIV). Seir in the first instance refers to Edom's mountain range; here it is a synonym for that country. Ezekiel indicts them because they say, Judah is like all the nations (other is not in Heb.). This is a play on the ancient demand of the elders for a king to govern them "like all the nations" (1 Sam. 8:5, KJV; cf. 8:20; Deut. 17:14). Once before, Ezekiel played upon this demand: Let us be like the nations . . . and worship wood and stone (20:32-33). Both the demand for human kingship and idolatrous worship are a rejection of the Lord's rule; they issue now in the grim humor of gloating neighbors: Judah has become "like all the nations"destroyed!

Beth Jeshimoth was a town on the plain of Moab, near Jericho, about 1000 feet below sea level (25:9, NIV). Baal Maon and Kiriathaim were towns eight and ten miles to the southeast on the Moab plateau, about 2000 feet above sea level (IDB, 3:320). This steep incline, the flank or "shoulder" of Moab, was a disputed frontier between Moab and Israel's tribes (Num. 32:34-38; cf. 32:24; 33:49; Josh. 13:17-19). The Moabite Stone tells how King Mesha of Moab took this territory from King Omri of Israel, and how he built Baal Meon (ANET: 320). Perhaps because Ammon has also been involved with Israel in such disputes, it is included in this judgment against Moab (25:10-11; cf. Judg. 11:12-28). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

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Oracle Against Edom 25:12-14

There were many conflicts between Edom and Israel before and after the exile. Perhaps because of these conflicts, many prophetic books include oracles against Edom (25:12; cf. 35:5, 10, 15; Amos 2:1-3; Isa. 34:5-17; Obad.; Jer. 49:7-22; Mal. 1:2-5).

The Hebrew words translated vengeance occur in this book only in 24:8 and in this chapter (25:12, 14-15, 17). Private vengeance is forbidden in both testaments (Lev. 19:18; Prov. 20:22; 24:29; Rom. 12:17-19). Even in international relations, vengeance is the prerogative of God (my vengeance, 25:14, 17; cf. Deut. 32:35; Heb. 10:30; Rev. 6:10). God exercises vengeance to rectify wrong in the divine kingdom (cf. Mendenhall: 69-104). Because Edom acted revengefully, it would be desolated, from Teman in central Edom and south to Dedan, a region on the Gulf of Aqaba (25:12-13; cf. 25:15).

In the book of Jeremiah, King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon is the instrument of the Lord's vengeance upon God's foes (46:10). However, the Lord's vengeance will finally be directed against Babylon itself, oppressor of the nations, destroyer of the temple, and guilty of the blood of Jerusalem (50:15, 28; 51:6, 11, 36). The exiles in its midst would have healed Babylon, but it would not be healed (51:9)

The concept of Israel as the instrument of God's vengeance is not characteristic of Ezekiel and is isolated to this half verse: by the hand of my people, Israel (25:14; cf. Num. 31:2, 4). Zimmerli says,

The announcement that Yahweh will summon his people Israel to participate in the judgments against Edom is remarkable. . . . [It] can be connected only with difficulty to the rest of Ezekiel's preaching. It is not taken up in Ezekiel 35f., where there is once again a very detailed passage about judgment on Edom. (Zimmerli, 1983:18)

He intimates that 25:14a may be a literary expansion, citing J. Herrmann, who "finds in the whole of v. 14 a gloss from the Maccabean period." But this verse stops far short of the wars of the Maccabees, who violated prophetic faith by military treaties with the Romans (1 Macc. 8; 12:1-4: 14:16-24; 15:15-24; cf. Ezek. 23).

However one may regard Zimmerli's evaluation, the verse relates to "the wars of Yahweh." In 1 Kings as here, Israel is portrayed as an inferior power; the Lord gives the enemy into Israel's hand (1 Kings 20:26-30). This may be contrasted with the Lord's defeat of Gog, apart from any act of Israel (Ezek. 37-38; cf. Lind, 1980:46-64). Both types of Yahweh war depended on miracle, the one more completely

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than the other, and miracle formed the center of Yahweh war. Neither type permitted Israel to integrate into the military culture of its environment for security; instead, they were to rely on the Lord.

Oracle Against Philistia 25:15-17

Israel regarded the Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites as a closely related Semitic people (Gen. 19:30-38; 36:1). The Philistines were a Greek-related people, Cherethites (25:16), likely referring to Crete (cf. Jer. 47:1-7; Amos 1:6-8; Zeph. 2:1-7; Zech. 9:5-8). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.] The indictment (25:15) uses words similar to those against Edom (25:12) and Ammon (25:6). For unending hostilities, see Amos 1:11.

The Text in Biblical Context

Prophecies Against the Nations

Like every prophetic book except Hosea, Ezekiel includes prophecies about the nations. The timing of all but one of his prophecies centers around the fall of Jerusalem, 587 B.C. They are sandwiched between an oracle of a future fugitive coming to Ezekiel to tell him of Jerusalem's fall (24:25-27), and a narrative telling that this event has happened (33:21-22). This timing is affirmed by dates for the oracles:

24:1

588 B.C.

26:1

587-586

29:1

587

29:17

571

30:20

587

31:1

587

32:1

585

32:17

585

33:21

585

Though the prophecies against the nations form a special segment, the oracles against both Judah and the nations are placed within the envelope of Ezekiel's vocation as a sentinel (3:17-21; 33:1-20). This suggests that all these threats do not need to happen. If Judah and the nations will listen to the Lord's sentinel, the future tragedy may be averted (cf. 33:2-6).

Ezekiel takes the nations seriously. He is informed not only about ancient Near Eastern myth (chaps. 28-29, 31), but also about international commerce and politics. His thorough knowledge is indicated in

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chapter 27: a ship on the high seas is a metaphor for Tyre's far-flung commercial activity, detailed with the use of 34 place names.

Of all the oracles in the prophetic books directed toward the nations, only one indicates that it was actually delivered to the nations (Jer. 27:1-11). Ezekiel may have spoken his oracles to the many foreign exiles with Israel in Babylon. But also, Ezekiel's prophecies against the nations are directed to his own people, to remind them of their rebellious unity with and responsibility for the nations. Although judgment begins with the people of God, it includes all nations. Salvation lies only beyond universal judgment

The oracles concerning the nations are of special importance because they provide background for the NT teaching of the church's relation to the state and to the society which does not know the Lord.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Defining State Power

Anabaptists, one wing of the Reformation, believe that the church defines the state rather than that the state defines the church. This radical sixteenth-century teaching is not rooted in individualism but in the teaching of Jesus and the NT church. Jesus in turn was heir of prophetic teaching such as that of Ezekiel, who here defines the limits of the powers of Near Eastern states and empires.

This teaching was understood not only by the prophets but also by other offices of OT Israel. For example, Psalm 24 begins with the claim that "the earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof" (24:1, KJV). This claim is based upon creation: "for he has founded it on the seas" (24:2). The psalm continues with the question of who may enter the holy place, the center from which God rules (24:3-6). It ends by acknowledging the Lord of this holy hill as the highest political officer, the King of Glory, Lord of hosts (24:8-10). This psalm is often associated with David's moving the ark to the "hill of the Lord" at Jerusalem. By this act, David acknowledged his own subjection to this authority.

Ezekiel and other prophets directly address these nations, defining and limiting their powers by the authority of this King of glory (Ezek. 25:1; cf. Deut. 32:8-9). In chapter 25 he criticizes them for gloating and taking advantage of the political weakness of Israel, the people of God. Jesus defines how the nations should use their powers. He says that he will judge them by the way they treat his followers (Matt. 25:31-46).

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The church must continue this vocation of defining the powers of the nations, so as not to permit them to force the people of God into the national mold (cf. Rom. 12:2). Nor must the community of faith permit the nations to force them into a ghetto, or even into a ''sect" concept of the church. Such acquiescence may be a denial of the church's vocation to lead the nations (Ezek. 5:5-6). If this claim is arrogant, let it be divine arrogance: the revelation that not violent power but the Lord's holy power, manifest in Jesus of Nazareth as followed by a vulnerable people, is to lead the nations into the twenty-first century.

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First Revelation Against Tyre: A Scraped Rock:

Ezekiel 26:1-21

Preview

As a maker of metaphors (20:49), Ezekiel is at his best in these four revelations against Tyre (chaps. 26; 27; 28:1-10; 28:11-19). The Hebrew for the name Tyre was likely derived from the Hebrew word rock (sur *). Ezekiel uses a synonym of this word twice in this chapter (sela', 25:4, 14). "Rock" is used in Psalm 40:2 as a symbol of security (sela'). It is fitting for Tyre as an ancient island securely isolated off the East Mediterranean coast. Here Ezekiel threatens that the rock will be scraped bare.

Though divided by four messenger formulas, Thus says the Lord God (25:3, 7, 15, 19), the chapter presently forms a literary unity. Tyre anticipates greater life in the first oracle but descends into death in the last. The second oracle enlarges the description of the oncoming attack; the third oracle projects human reaction to it. Except for the lack of the messenger formula, the structure of the first oracle compares to those of chapter 25 (see notes thereon).

Outline

The Date and Revelation Formula, 26:1

The Primary Prophecy Against Tyre, 26:2-6

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Description of the Attack, 26:7-14

Reaction of Area Political Leaders to Tyre's Fall, 26:15-18

Tyre's Descent to the Underworld, 26:19-21

Explanatory Notes

The Date and Revelation Formula 26:1

The date heads up the four revelations, though that does not necessarily mean that all were composed at that time (26:1; cf. 27:1; 28:1, 11). The year designates the fall of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:2, 8), though since the month is missing, it may have been before or after the fall. In this year, Nebuchadnezzar began his thirteen-year siege of Tyre. [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

The Primary Prophecy Against Tyre 26:2-6

Gateway of the peoples is a metaphor describing Judah's position astride the commercial routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt, and especially between the Gulf of Aqaba and the Mediterranean (26:2). Prior to the Suez Canal (opened in 1869), this land route was the most convenient access between the Mediterranean and East Africa/India (cf. 1 Kings 9:26-27; 22:49). With Jerusalem's fall, this route will swing open to Tyre.

Anciently an island off the coast of present-day Lebanon, Tyre was joined to the mainland by a causeway built by Alexander the Great to take that city in 332 B.C. The simile is geographically apt: as the sea hurls its waves against the island, so the Lord will hurl many nations against it (26:3). Ezekiel paints the future desolation of the bare rock by fishermen spreading their nets upon it, to dry and mend them (26:4-5, 14; cf. 47:10; Matt. 4:21). Then they shall know that I am the Lord (Ezek. 26:6b). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

Description of the Attack 26:7-14

The title king of kings, used earlier of Egyptian and Assyrian emperors, is used of the god Marduk in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon, then later of Persian and Greek kings (26:7; Zimmerli, 1983:35-36; cf. ANET: 307-311). The title is assigned to the glorified Jesus in Revelation 17:14; 19:16.

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The name Nebuchadrezzar, a variant spelling of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 27:8), is presented four times in this book (26:7; 29:18-19; 30:10). It is based on the Babylonian form, Nabu-kudurri-utsur, meaning "O [god] Nabu, preserve the offspring/boundary-stone" (Harper's: 691). Beginning with the mainland settlements (daughter-towns, 26:8; cf. 26:6), his attack will continue with the siege of Tyre. Since siege wall, ramp, and shields are suitable devices for taking landbound cities, these apply especially to the mainland settlements. The shield was used to protect archers and battering-ram operators on the ramp, next to the wall. For battering rams in 26:9, see 21:22, where a Hebrew synonym is used. The text describes the individual actions of the king (26:6b-11), the army (26:12), and of Israel's God (26:13-14). Reference to bare rock and spreading nets ties this oracle to the previous one (26:14, 5).

Reaction of Area Political Leaders to Tyre's Fall 26:15-18

The areas referred to by coastlands are all the inhabited coasts and islands which traded with Tyre (26:15; cf. NEB). From the tenth to the seventh centuries B.C., Tyre was the greatest maritime power on the Mediterranean. Its colonies even extended beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, and Carthage on the North African coast was the most famous. [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

The princes of the sea are rulers of the areas economically dependent upon Tyre's commercial empire (26:16). Tyrannized by Tyre when it was powerful; they will be terrorized by its death (26:17). They will engage in ritual mourning, removing robes, garments, trembling, sitting on the ground, and chanting a lamentation. This is not so much from love of Tyre as from awe at its collapse and fear for their own future (26:16-17).

There are six designated lamentations in the book of Ezekiel (Heb.: qinah: 19:1-14; 26:17-18; 27:2-36, 32-36 [lament within a lament]; 28:12-19; 32:2-16). Typically, they describe the glory that once was (27:17), but now is no longer (26:18). The Hebrew word here translated terror is found only in Ezekiel (26:17; 32:23-27, 30, 32). In their annals, Near Eastern emperors boast about how they terrorized the enemy. Such terror is a means by which great powers establish and maintain themselves (cf. 32:23; "The Lord's Demand and the Dragon's Arrogance" in TBC for 29:132:32). These princes use the word positively, to describe Tyre's past glory; Ezekiel intends it negatively, to name the sin of the powers.

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Tyre's Descent to the Underworld 26:19-21

Because at the fall of Jerusalem, Tyre gloated that it would have more abundant life (26:2), it will descend to death. The Pit to which the dead retired was an ancient mythological concept of the nether world (26:20; 31:14, 16; 32:18, 23-24; Ps. 30:3). It here compares to the deep (26:19; Gen. 1:2; Ps. 71:20), the great waters which surrounded the island and which the Lord will bring up over Tyre. The phrase, people of long ago, is part of the tradition of an ancient military caste which preceded Tyre into the underworld (26:20; cf. note on 32:27).

Tyre will come to a dreadful end; this editorial refrain closes each of the three oracles against Tyre (26:21; 27:36b; 28:19b). Ezekiel revises this prophecy against Tyre in 29:17-20. For another unfulfilled prophecy and revision, see 1 Kings 21:29. Though according to Deuteronomy 18:22, fulfillment is the mark of a true prophet, foretelling the future is not of itself what prophecy is mainly about.

The Text in Biblical Context

The Bible and Tyre

In the biblical canon, Tyre is first named in a list defining the borders of the tribe Asher, "reaching to the fortified city of Tyre" (Josh. 19:2429). Because of geographic proximity to this Mediterranean titan, the Northern tribes supplied technological leadership for Solomon's commercial activities with Tyre (1 Kings 7:13-47; 2 Chron. 2). In these trade agreements, Tyre provided lumber for Solomon's building activities; as Tyre's nearest breadbasket, Solomon exchanged barley, wheat, wine, and olive oil (1 Kings 5:9d, 11; 2 Chron. 2:10). Israel cooperated with Tyre by building an ocean fleet near Elath, on the Gulf of Aqaba. Thus Israel became the overland route (before the Suez Canal) between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea (1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:11, 22; 2 Chron. 8:17-18; Aharoni: maps 115-116). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

These commercial activities were important to bring Israel into its contemporary world. Yet they had their downside in Israel's religious and social relationships. Solomon himself undercut Yahwistic justice by worshiping the Phoenician goddess Astarte (1 Kings 11:5). Like Egypt before him, he subjected his people to state slavery (1 Kings 9:15-22; 11:23-28). Impatient with prophetic criticism, he ran the prophet Ahijah underground and lit the fuse that split the kingdom (1 Kings 11:29-40).

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This downside reached its nadir when Omri, king of Samaria, revived the Mediterranean connection by making a treaty with King Ethbaal of Sidon. He sealed the treaty with marriage of his son, Ahab, to Ethbaal's daughter, Jezebel, who promoted Phoenician culture and religion in Israel. Singlehandedly, the prophet Elijah stood in Jezebel's way, winning the victory for Israel's God on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 17-18).

Disillusioned with the Lord over this conflict, Elijah made a pilgrimage to Mount Sinai. There he learned that the Lord is not in the storm, unlike the Phoenician Baal, a national storm-god representing economics and power politics. Israel's God is typified by "a gentle whisper" (1 Kings 19:12, NIV). If correct, this translation may refer to divine revelation through the prophet. Elijah must counter the violent power of Jezebel with the gentle whisper of the prophetic word.

Unlike the Psalms, which are both positive and negative toward Tyre (45:12; 83:7; 87:4), the prophets are mainly negative. The book of Isaiah predicts the destruction of Tyre, probably by Assyria (23:1-14); that Tyre will be destroyed and forgotten for 70 years, after which it will be revived and "dedicated to the Lord" (23:13-18). In its segment against the nations, the book of Jeremiah says that Tyre must drink the cup of the Lord's wrath (25:17-26).

In the Book of the Twelve, the Minor Prophets, Tyre is castigated for selling people into slavery (Amos 1:9-10; Joel 3:4-8); Tyre will be burned with fire, and its wealth will be cast into the sea (Zech. 9:2-4).

In the NT, Tyre is mentioned in the Gospels on three occasions. People from Tyre and Sidon were part of the crowd listening to Jesus in Galilee (Mark 3:8; Luke 6:17). In a series of woes directed against the cities of Galilee, Jesus declares that Tyre and Sidon would have repented had they witnessed the mighty works done in Galilee (Matt. 11:21-22; Luke 10:13-14). Because of opposition in Galilee, Jesus withdrew to the region of Tyre and Sidon, where he healed the daughter of a Canaanite mother (Matt. 15:21; Mark 7:24-30). Tyre appears in the Acts twice: in a judgment on Herod, when people of Tyre and Sidon praised him as a god (12:20-23); and in the narrative of Paul's journey toward Jerusalem, when he stops over at Tyre to minister for seven days (21:1-6).

The most extensive material on Tyre is that of Ezekiel 26:128:19. This material varies from conventional judgment oracles (chap. 26) to a brilliant lament and description of international trade (chap. 27), and oracles directed against Tyre's power mythology (28:1-19). Here Tyre is indicted for its arrogant autonomy in exercise

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of power and for gloating over prostrate Jerusalem, whose collapse it hopes to exploit to its own advantage (26:2).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Political Expediency and Morality

Historically, Anabaptism has interpreted Matthew 25:31-46 as a scene in which Jesus will judge the nations on the basis of how they have treated his persecuted followerswhen they were hungry, thirsty, outsiders, naked, sick, and in prison. If this reading is correct, Jesus extends Ezekiel's critique for mistreating defeated Israel to a critique against nations who mistreat his vulnerable followers engaged in his mission.

One recipient of such mistreatment was the Chinese Church, beginning with the Mao Tse-tung regime. In 1982, children of missionaries returned to their birthplace in China. They with their parents had been forced out in 1951, and the Chinese Church had gone underground. To their surprise, they found churches crowded. "Reports estimate there are from four to 12 million Christians in China in a population of 900 million." At the time of the missionaries' forced leave, there were an estimated two million Christians in China (MWR 7/15/82:1; cf. 12/9/82:1). The tourists heard many stories of imprisonment and hardship.

Ezekiel's critique is the ultimate challenge to the Machiavellian state, which places political expediency above morality and uses unscrupulous cunning, deception, and dishonesty to pursue its own advantage. It puts such states on notice that its citizens who follow in the vulnerable path of Ezekiel and Jesus have rights which God expects them to respect. Any power which the state is inclined to wield should protect rather than persecute such citizens. This notice demands that the state become enlightened, that it guide its actions according to the dictates of a Higher Powera Power which does not immediately meet fire with fire, but which defers its judgments to a day of final reckoning.

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Second Revelation Against Tyre: Ship Lost at Sea:

Ezekiel 27:1-36

Preview

As chapter 26 is dominated by the metaphor of Tyre the rock, so chapter 27 is dominated by the metaphor of Tyre, the commercial ship. While the metaphor rock is rooted in linguistics (Heb: sur * = rock, name for Tyre), the metaphor ship arises out of geography: Tyre as a Mediterranean island. Both metaphors, rock and ship, emphasize judgment: the "Rock of Gibraltar," once secure, will be scraped bare; the "Titanic," once dominating the sea, will sink in the waters.

This chapter is unusual in that God, mentioned only in the introduction (27:1-3a), nowhere refers to the divine self even with a pronoun. The chapter begins with a revelation formula, The word of the Lord came to me, employed four times in the oracles against Tyre (26:1; 27:1; 28:1, 11). It ends with an editorial refrain about a dreadful end, occurring three times (26:21; 27:36b; 28:19b).

The poem's literary type is a lamentation (27:2; cf. PREVIEW of chap. 19), into which a prose segment has been inserted (27:12-25a). This "literary sandwich" is often found in the Scriptures (in Job, the poetry of 3:142:6 is sandwiched within a prose narrative). The prose is unified with the poetry in at least two ways: Tyre throughout the chapter is addressed as you, the second-person-singular pronoun; and the prose and poetry list of place-names is synchronized so that there is no repetition of names.

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These four accusations against Tyre may have been written by Ezekiel in his house and delivered by disciples to the exiles, perhaps exiles both of Judah and Tyre.

Outline

Introduction: Lamentation over Tyre, 27:1-3d

Poetic Envelope One: The Commercial Ship, 27:3e-11

27:3e-7

Its Structure

27:8-9

Its Crew

27:10-11

Its Military Force

Prose Insert: The Trade List, 27:12-25a

Poetic Envelope Two: Shipwreck at Sea, 27:25b-36

27:25b-27

The Shipwreck

27:28-31

Ritual Mourning

27:32-36

Lamentation Within a Lamentation

Explanatory Notes

Introduction: Lamentation over Tyre 27:1-3d

Tyre was sited at the entrance to the sea; its famed harbor dominated Mediterranean sea routes (27:3; cf. 26:2). Merchant (Heb.: rokelet) appears elsewhere only in the prose insert, in verb form: traded (27:13, 15, 17, 20, 22-24; cf. KJV); it unifies the prose with the poem.

Poetic Envelope One: The Commercial Ship 27:3e-11

Tyre's boast, I am perfect in beauty, a concept occurring three times in the chapter, may have been a quote from Tyre's own mythology (27:3-4, 11; cf. 28:12, 17). Your borders or territorial boundaries might be translated, Your domain was on the high seas (27:4, NIV). The metaphor of Tyre as a ship begins with the words, Your builders.

The components of the shipplanks, mast, oars, deck, sail, and awningoriginated in lands on the east and south Mediterranean arena (27:5-7). Senir is an Amorite name for Mount Hermon, source of the Jordan River (27:5; cf. Deut. 3:9). Cyprus (27:6) is also called Elishah (27:7; cf. Gen. 10:4). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.] The sail

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of ancient Phoenician and Egyptian boats was a work of art, often colored and serving as an ensign or banner.

The ship's crew, composed of rowers, skilled men as pilots, elders, and artisans, were from Phoenician city-states on or off the eastern seacoast (27:8-9; Gebel = Byblos). As a dominating power, Tyre ran the show (your skilled men, O Tyre, 27:8, NIV). In 27:9b, Ezekiel deserts his metaphor to describe the activity of foreign ships in Tyre's harbor.

The origin of Tyre's mercenary army was more far-flung than that of its crew (27:10-11). Lud was probably Lydia of Asia Minor; Put designated a part of Libya in North Africa; Helech was probably a part of Cilicia of SE Asia Minor; Gamad, likely a place in Syria (IDB). Here again Ezekiel moves from metaphor to reality: Shield and helmet may have been hung on the sides of the ship (27:10), while walls and towers refer to the city (27:11).

Prose Insert: The Trade List 27:12-25a

Beginning and ending with Tarshish (27:12, 25), some place-names between may be located on the map (Aharoni: map 116). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.] The table below gives additional texts; italicized texts indicate sources of products.

Tarshish, Gen. 10:4; Jer. 10:9; Ezek. 38:13: Jon. 1:3

Javan, Gen. 10:2; Isa. 66:19

Tubal, Gen. 10:2; Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 32:26; 38:2-3; 39:1

Meshech, Gen. 10:2; Ezek. 32:26; 38:2-3; 39:1

Beth-togarmah, Gen. 10:3; Ezek. 38:6

Rhodes, Acts 21:1

Edom (Aram?), Gen. 32:3; Ezek. 25:12-14; Amos 1:11-12

Judah, Ezek. 4:6; 8:1, 17; 9:9; 21:20; 25:3, 8, 12; 37:16

Damascus, 2 Kings 8:7-15; Jer. 49:23-27; Amos 1:3-5

Helbon (village near Damascus)

Uzal, Gen. 10:27

Dedan, Gen. 10:7; Jer. 49:8; Ezek. 25:13; 38:13

Arabia, 1 Kings 10:15; Isa. 21:13-17; Gal. 1:17; 4:25

Kedar, Gen. 25:13; Ps. 120:5; Isa. 60:7; Jer. 49:28-30

Sheba, Ps. 72:10, 15; Isa. 60:6; Jer. 6:20; 1 Kings 10:1-2

Raamah, Gen. 10:7

Haran, Gen. 11:26-32; Isa. 37:12

Canneh (on south coast of Arabia)

Eden, Isa. 51:3; Ezek. 28:13; 31:9-18

Asshur/Assyria, Gen. 2:14; 10:11, 22; 2 Kings 18:719:36: Isa. 7:17ff.

Chilmad (obscure)

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Greece (Javan) and Asia Minor (Tubal, Meshech) were the sources of Tyre's slave trade (27:13; cf. Amos 1:9; Joel 3:6-8). Edom, controlling the Gulf of Aqaba, gave Tyre access to East Africa and India (27:16; cf. 1 Kings 9:26-28). For trade in horses and mules (27:14), compare 1 Kings 10:22-29. Judah was Tyre's breadbasket; honey may have been derived from the date palm (27:17). The ships of Tarshish were special ships for hauling ore (27:25). This may be the most extensive trade list in ancient Near Eastern literature.

Poetic Envelope Two: Shipwreck at Sea 27:25b-36

After the prose insert, the lament continues. The first part tells how it once was with Tyre (27:3e-11); the second tells how it now is (27:25b-36). The destruction has not yet happened; the lament is a prophecy of what will come, a prophecy later qualified (29:17-20).

Two and a half verses describe the shipwreck (27:25b-27); the remainder describes the international reaction (27:28-36). The heart of the seas, occurring three times, has mythological connotations of the ''center" (27:25-27; cf. 5:5). But this advantageous position, the source of Tyre's life (27:4), will be the place of its death.

Here the east wind, typical of Mediterranean weather, is a metaphor for Tyre's enemy, the Babylonians (27:26). The ship's cargo, crew, merchants, and warriors are lost on the day of Tyre's ruin (27:27; cf. 27:8-24).

Reaction to the disaster begins on the mainland, the countryside (27:28). With the center gone, commerce is paralyzed; the crews desert their ships and refuse to leave the shore (27:29). To wail, cry (cf. Jer. 47:2), throw dust on the head (cf. Lam. 2:10), wallow in ashes (27:30; cf. Jer. 6:26), shave the head, and put on sackcloth (27:31; cf. Isa. 3:24-26)all these are parts of a public mourning ceremony.

The prophet's lamentation (27:2) ends with quoting the lamentation of the mariners and pilots, a lament within a lament (27:32-36). Again, this lament contrasts what once was (27:33) with what now is (27:34-36; cf. notes on 27:25b-36). Again, 27:34 describes Tyre's demise, while 27:35-36 depicts the international reaction. The general populace (inhabitants), political leaders (kings), and merchants alike are terrified, though special emphasis is given to political leaders. Politics and economics are closely related; when the center falls, the entire international political and economic arena is convulsed.

The word hiss (27:36) expresses awe rather than contempt. The JB expresses the idea: The traders of the nations have whistled at

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your fate. The lament ends with the editorial refrain about Tyre's dreadful end (27:36b; cf. 26:21; 28:19).

The Text in Biblical Context

International Geography in the Bible

The importance of geography for the Bible becomes apparent when one compares the Bible with the Veda, the Hindu sacred writings. The Veda, like most other primary books of religion, has few geographical referents. The Bible, on the other hand, is so full of such referents that one cannot understand it without a map at hand.

Such a close relationship between the Bible story and geography is illustrated by Aharoni and Avi-yonah's Macmillan Bible Atlas, which offers more than 250 maps to illustrate the biblical text.

The international character of the Bible's geography already begins in Genesis 1-11, especially with the Table of Nations (Gen. 10; Aharoni: map 15). As the authors say, this table is "a unique list of the nations of the world, within the scope of the people of Israel, the list of the family of man." The table divides the world into three spheres of people and lands: the sons of Shem in Mesopotamia and Arabia, the sons of Ham in Egypt and its sphere of influence, and the sons of Japheth especially in the north Mediterranean arena. Although this understanding of the world is not adequate from a modern perspective, it is nevertheless "a pioneering effort among the ethnographic attempts of the ancient world" and is "noteworthy for its wide scope and analytical approach'' (Speiser: 71).

This table is noteworthy for its concept of the unity of the peoples of the world. Many of the place-names found in Ezekiel 27 also appear in this table. Ezekiel shared with this ancient document the concept that all peoples of the earth are united under the concern of the one God who, in the interest of these peoples, gave a special vocation to the people of Israel.

This international concern enters a new phase in the Gospels when the resurrected Lord sends his followers to "make disciples of all nations" (Matt. 28:19). As a sequel, Acts begins with the story of people gathered at Pentecost from Central and Western Asia, from Northern Africa and Southern Europe (Acts 2:9-11), and ends with Paul preaching the gospel in Southern Europe (Acts 28:23-30).

In each period of the Bible story, the people of God are in contact with geography which lies outside the land of Israel. Nowhere is that

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more apparent than in Ezekiel 27, which details the far-flung commerce of a foreign commercial empire.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Reflections on Lebanon

I have visited Lebanon three times. The first was in the summer of 1965. While touring northern Israel, I took a few steps across the border into Lebanon. This visit was significant only because I was able to cross an unguarded and lightly marked frontier, with neither soldiers nor fortifications in sightan unusual experience in the Near East.

The second visit, June 1973, was more substantial: to the coastal sites of ancient Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, and over the Lebanese mountains to the Bekaa Valley and Baalbek. On a beautiful summer evening, my friends and I strolled along the Mediterranean beach at Beirut; our movements were unrestricted and, though we saw a few guns and pillboxes, we little dreamed what was about to happen to this "Switzerland" of the Arab world. Because of a closed border, our overland tour to Damascus was canceled. Instead, we flew to Nikosia, Cyprus, and hopped from there to Damascus.

My third visit was in the summer of 1982, from Israel, via the coastal border town of Rosh Haniqra. It was just after Israel's spectacular thrust to Beirut, and I watched as families from both sides of the border were reunited for a brief visit after years of separation.

Today I reflect on the fate of this land, the site of the great commercial empire of Tyre. Like the Western churches, Lebanon's Christian community has not contributed much to peace. I reflect on Peter's words to the household of the Roman soldier, Cornelius, at Caesarea, south of the Lebanese border: "You know the message he sent to the people of Israel, preaching peace by Jesus Christhe is Lord of all" (Acts 10:36).

Peter is up front. He begins his proclamation of the gospel by stating the central issue for this army officer. Peter represents "peace by Jesus Christ," pacem per Iesum Christum (Latin Vulgate), rather than the Pax Romana (peace enforced by Rome) represented by this army officer stationed at Caesarea. Jesus is "Lord of all," rather than Caesar and his program of empire, symbolized by the firepower of Cornelius. Peter then outlines Jesus' holy power and program (Acts 10:38-53).

I wonder what might have happened in modern Lebanon if Christians had been up front with Peter's gospel.

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Third and Fourth Revelations Against Tyre:

Ezekiel 28:1-26

Preview

A city's character, even destiny, is interlinked with that of its leaders. While previous oracles are directed against Tyre, these two are directed against its leadership, its power structure.

Metaphors of rock and ship have dominated the discussion about Tyre, the commercial giant (26:4, 14; 27:4, 25b). To Ezekiel's ancient audience, these are sometimes more than mere metaphors in which one thing is likened to another; they are understood against the background of Near Eastern myth. For example, the Hebrew name for Tyre (rock) is also a term used of divinity (Deut. 32:4, 15, 18, 30-31, 37). Tyre was likely perceived by Phoenicians as the primeval mountain or rock (identified with divinity) which from the time of creation jutted up from the heart of the seas.

Chapter 28 crowns Ezekiel's use of myth in his polemic against Tyre, or more accurately, against Tyre's leadership. In its first two oracles, he contends not against personal but communal arrogance, in which the community identified the political leader with divinity, or as the "kingpin," the I AM of history. The chapter ends with an oracle against Sidon and an oracle of promise for Israel; these form a summation of oracles against the nations prior to those against Egypt. A second summation is presented at the end of the Egypt oracles, chapter 32.

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Outline

An Oracle Against Tyre's Political Leader, 28:1-10

28:1-5

Introduction and Indictment

28:6-10

Threat of Judgment

Lamentation Against Tyre's Political Leader, 28:11-19

28:11-12c

Revelation, Address, and Messenger Formulas

28:12d-15b

What Once Was

28:15c-19

What Happens Later

An Oracle Against Sidon; Summation, 28:20-23

An Oracle of Promise for Israel; Summation, 28:24-26

Explanatory Notes

The three revelation formulas of this chapter introduce three independent oracles: The word of the Lord came to me (28:1, 11, 20). [Revelation Formula: 381.] The first two oracles, however, are united editorially by the single refrain which closes each of the preceding accusations against Tyre (28:19b; cf. 26:21; 27:36b). Prince and king refer to the same person, the chief political officer of Tyre (28:2, 12).

An Oracle Against Tyre's Political Leader 28:1-10

28:1-5 Introduction and Indictment

The word because (ya'an) introduces the reason for judgment: the prince's pride or arrogance. He claims, I am a god (28:2e; cf. 28:9). This is not to be understood as a mere personal boast but as a corporate conviction. It is part of a political power myth accepted by the entire community and undergirding the authority of government. For similar mythology, see TBC below.

Ezekiel debunks this myth: You are but a mortal, and no god (28:2, 9). In the Bible, the king is not considered divine, as in Egypt (ANET: 446); nor is kingship "lowered from heaven," a divine gift, as in Mesopotamia (ANET: 265; cf. 1 Sam. 8; 10:25). The king is not the I AM of history, in contrast to his regard throughout the ancient Near East (cf. Isa. 47:8). Civil government is human and must be subject to prophetic criticism.

Wisdom is an important motif of the myth of the divine rule of

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kings (28:4). The text debunks the divinizing of the prince and comparing his mind with the mind of a god (28:2). Yet it recognizes that he is wiser than Daniel (28:3). Daniel is probably not the hero of the book of Daniel but one of the three famous heroes of the ancient Near East (cf. notes on Ezek. 14:14). The important point, however, is how the text recognizes that this wisdom, though human, is nevertheless good, to be valued for economic reasons (28:4-5). Though many commentators regard 28:3-5 as the work of a later disciple, it may be the product of Ezekiel himself. Long before Ezekiel's day, Jews engaged in international trade, which here is valued as beneficial.

28:6-10 Threat of Judgment

Sin is often regarded as odious, associated with the lower classes. Here, however, judgment is directed against the cardinal sin of the upper classes, the beauty of your wisdom, the divinizing of the wisdom and authority of human government (28:7; cf. Gen. 3:6; Jer. 5:4). For Pit (28:8), see note on 26:20. Note the repetition of the phrase, in the heart of the seas; the glorious rule at the center of the seas is now swallowed up by those seas (28:2, 8; cf. 27:4).

The prophet's main purpose is to demythologize the arrogance of state power. The boast, I am a god, is deflated in the presence of deathnot the death of a mere person, but the death of the power structure of an empire (28:9). The authority of its representative is exposed as that of a mortal, entirely human. The death of the uncircumcised is death outside of any relationship to God's covenant community, the death of the rebellious (28:10).

Contrasted with the I am of arrogant empire or state power is the Lord God's I have spoken (28:10). In the midst of a disempowered people, the Lord God speaks through this lowly prophet, who claims that the Lord is the Ego who determines history, not the ego of state power. Ezekiel does not disclaim divine authority in international politics but relocates the source of that power (cf. Col. 1:16; 2:9).

Lamentation Against Tyre's Political Leader 28:11-19

A lamentation or funeral dirge is a potent literary instrument when used against someone still alive (28:12; cf. 19:1). The king as indicated here is the same political leader as the prince of 28:2.

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28:11-12c Revelation, Address, and Messenger Formulas

The word of the Lord comes to Ezekiel again, and he has a message for the king of Tyre: Thus says the Lord God. . . .

28:12d-15b What Once Was

The king is here identified with the first human being, in Eden (28:13). This identity may have been typical of kingship myth in the Near East (cf. ANET: 101-103).

The signet (28:12) was the king's ring, the official seal for government business. In Hebrew the participle is used; it may be translated, You set the seal on perfection (NEB).

This description of the king is obviously related to the story of the garden of Eden (Gen. 2-3). These texts have certain motifs in common: perfection, wisdom, beauty (28:12); Eden, garden, precious stone (28:13); cherub, expulsion from the garden (28:16); and the concept of a fall (28:15-16; cf. TBC below).

Every precious stone was a covering, a robe in which the precious stones were set: Every precious stone adorned you (28:13, NIV). This text has often been compared with the precious stones of the high priest's breastplate in Exodus 28:17-20. For cherub (28:14, 16) in Ezekiel, see 9:3; 10:1-20; 11:22; 41:18-25. It is uncertain what is meant by stones of fire (28:14); some commentators understand these as mythic creatures on the holy mountain. Created is used throughout the Bible only of God's activity (28:13, 15; Gen. 1; 5:2; Isa. 4:5; Jer. 31:22).

28:15c-19 What Happens Later

Blameless in your ways may be understood in terms of kingship myth where the king is identified with the first human being (28:15). As in Genesis 3, so here there is a fall: iniquity and violence are connected with trade (28:15-16; cf. Gen. 6:11; Ps. 58:2). By giving gifts of this unrighteous trade to the sanctuaries, these sanctuaries were profaned (28:18). This sin is motivated by arrogance: Your heart was proud (28:17). The king corrupted his wisdom by using it to enhance his own splendor (cf. Jer. 22:13-17).

Judgment upon the king is stated as coming in three ways. The dominant way is by the Lord's direct action: I cast you (28:16-17); I exposed you (28:17); I turned you to ashes (28:18). The second way

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is by means of the cherub: the cherub drove you out (28:16; cf. Gen. 3:24). The third way is by fire, which the Lord brought out from within the king (28:18). Lust for glory and splendor is the fire of its own undoing.

An Oracle Against Sidon; Summation 28:20-23

Sidon was a Phoenician city-state, often joined with Tyre in the Bible (28:21; cf. Zech. 9:2; Matt. 11:21-22). It was the leading city before about 1000 B.C., when Tyre became dominant. In the Persian and Greek periods, Sidon again became the leading city by cooperating with these powers in international commerce. [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

The Lord will gain glory in the midst of Sidon by executing judgments in it (28:22; cf. 39:13). In these two uses of the verbal form, God will gain glory by the defeat of the state and the imperial power. The noun form of glory occurs 19 times in the book; except for two occurrences, it describes appearances of the Lord upon the divine chariot (chaps. 1-3, 8-11, 43-44). [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.]

Judgment upon Sidon will also be a manifestation of the Lord's holiness (28:22, verbal form). Holy is a favorite word of the priest Ezekiel, occurring in his book 49 times as a noun and 15 times as a verb. Here it is used of both judgment and salvation; holiness is that divine trait which breaks down resistance to God's rule (28:22, 25).

An Oracle of Promise for Israel; Summation 28:24-26

As a result of the Lord's judgment on the nations, the house of Israel will no longer be treated by them with contempt (28:24). Manifesting the divine holiness (cf. 28:22), the Lord will gather them from the peoples, in the sight of the nations; they will settle on their own soil, God's ancient gift to them (28:25). The title, my servant Jacob, appears in Jeremiah and, later, in the second part of the book of Isaiah (Ezek. 37:25; Jer. 30:10; 46:27; Isa. 41:8; 44:1-2, 21; 45:4; 48:20).

Israel will live in safety/securely/secure, a phrase Ezekiel uses nine times of Israel's life beyond the exile (28:26ac; 34:25, 27-28; 38:8, 11, 14; 39:26; cf. Mic. 4:4). This is security based on obedience and trust in the Lord rather than on the sword of the nations. The words build houses and plant vineyards may be a quote from Jeremiah's letter to the exiles (29:5); but now Israel will build and plant in its own land. This activity will symbolize the Lord's peace; to

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enjoy such activity, Israelite men are exempted from military service by Deuteronomic law (Deut. 20:5-6; cf. Smith: 133-137).

Ezekiel 28:20-26 is a summary statement of the oracles against the nations prior to those against Egypt (Ezek. 25-28). This is especially shown by the formula They shall know that I am the Lord [Recognition Formula, p. 380]; of a total of nine times in chapters 25-28, it appears four times in this summary statement (28:22, 23, 24, 26). The divine holiness will be convincingly displayed in judgments against the nations (28:22) and in salvation for Israel in the sight of the nations (28:25). Both the nations and Israel will know that I am the Lord their God (28:23, 26). This is no mere patriotic nationalism. Instead, the Lord of the nations is a moral God. The Lord's leadership in international politics is represented not by the armies of Israel's neighboring states, nor by the mercenary armies of Tyre, but by my servant Jacob, a broken and scattered people. This God, says Ezekiel, both the nations and Israel will one day acknowledge.

The Text in Biblical Context

Ancient Near Eastern Power Myths and the Bible

Much has been written on ancient Near Eastern myth and the Bible. Yet it is not often said that the purpose of much of that myth was to legitimate political power based upon coercion and violent force. It is this purpose which the Bible centrally contradicts and opposes.

For example, the Babylonian Creation Epic does not merely describe the creation of the universe; it is a political document (ANET: 60-72). Its political purpose is apparent in three theses: (1) Marduk, god of the city of Babylon, is appointed king of the gods. (2) As god-king of Babylon, he conquers chaos (Tiamat) and gives order to the universe. (3) The city of Babylon itself is founded by the gods at the beginning of time as their habitat. Similarly, the Egyptian creation story was written by the priests of Memphis to legitimate the emergence of that city as the new political center where Egypt is united in Pharaoh (ANET: 4-6).

Read from this perspective, one would expect Genesis 1-2 to undergird the political claims of the Davidic dynasty and Jerusalem. But the biblical writers resisted this temptation. Genesis 1-2 are not power myths legitimating the authority of the Davidic empire. Instead, they are proclamations which legitimate the freedom of the human family under the rule of God.

Genesis 3, the story of the fall, finds close parallels in the state-

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ments of the fall of kings. Its closest parallel is Ezekiel 28:11-17, which obviously has a similar Near Eastern background. Both texts bear a similar message: as the human family fell by disobedience, the king fell by arrogance and violence.

Ezekiel 28:1-10 also has parallels to the Genesis story of the fall. Here the king claims to be god, to rule from the seat of the gods, just as the first woman is tempted, "You will be like God" (Gen. 3:4). This kingly fall is not merely personal; it is corporate, for Ezekiel is here attacking a communal myth.

A third parallel to the fall of Genesis 3 is Isaiah's taunt-song against Babylon (Isa. 14:3-23). This is one of the great songs against tyranny, not only of the Bible but of all literature. The first stanza describes the earth's jubilation when the oppressor's power is broken (14:4b-8; note the ecology theme); the second stanza describes the welcome the tyrant will receive in the underworld (14:7-11; cf. Ezek. 28:8-10).

The third stanza deflates the arrogance of kingship myth (Isa. 14:12-14). Ancient commentators did not understand this myth and assumed that the prophet was speaking of the devil. But the statement is clearly directed "against the king of Babylon" (14:4). The oppressor falls because of his arrogance; he made himself "like the Most High" and presumed to "sit enthroned on the mount of assembly," the divine assembly where nations' destinies are determined (28:13-14, NIV; cf. Dan. 11:36). The Babylonian empire presumed to dispose of the nationsa pursuit the prophets reserve to God alone.

Throughout the Bible are many critiques against the arrogance of state power. In Daniel 4:29, royal pretension issues in madness: "Is this not magnificent Babylon, which I have built as a royal capital by my mighty power and for my glorious majesty?" Luke tells the story of how Herod Agrippa I died of worms when the enthusiastic crowd ascribed to him divinity; they shouted, "The voice of a god, and not of man!" (Acts 12:20-23; cf. 2 Macc. 9). Finally, John the Revelator foretells God's judgment on Rome under the code name "Babylon" (Rev. 17-18), using much imagery from Tyre's fall described in Ezekiel 28.

But all is not polemic in the Bible. In the NT the power myth is turned upside down by the proclamation that Jesus has overcome the powers (Col. 2:15), just as Ezekiel anticipates this proclamation in chapters 38-39. The power myth is broken by the new motif for leadership which disciples have in Christ, "who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied himself, taking the form of a slave, being born in

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human likeness. And being found in human form, he humbled himself and became obedient to the point of deatheven death on a cross" (Phil. 2:6-8). Disciples are to emulate this style of leadership (Mark 10:42-45).

The Text in the Life of the Church

The Pacifist Politician

At the end of an election campaign in the United States, Christian pacifist politicians expressed a variety of attitudes toward their political participation (MWR, 10/29/92:1). Most were involved in state and local politics and therefore felt that they did not face the problem of militarization; state issues generally deal with highways, etc. One expressed uncertainty about his vote for a resolution condemning Saddam Hussein. Another, running for office on the national level, believed strong defense is the best way to maintain peace. He stated that while traditional pacifist Scriptures are good directives for personal living, they do not apply to government officials who have to govern a nation. He opposed the Peace Tax Fund bill, maintaining that citizens should not choose which programs they want to support.

Readers may wish to discuss participation in civil government, based upon the following principles gathered from Ezekiel's oracles directed against the Near Eastern states (chaps. 25-28):

1. The prophetic word has authority over all states and empires even though they may not acknowledge the God of Israel and of Jesus Christ (25:1-2; 26:1-2; 27:1-2; 28:1, 11-12).

2. The state is not to oppress the vulnerable people of God (25:126:6).

3. Civil governments are not the I AM of history: they are not sovereign. If they arrogantly usurp this place of God, they are subject to prophetic judgment (28:1-19).

4. Civil governments fall when they become violent and corrupt their wisdom by misuse of wealth (28:16-17).

5. Israel's vocation is to be a moral exemplar, that the nations might acknowledge the Lord of Israel (and the church) as the one universal God.

6. How may these principles be qualified and augmented by the NT?

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Seven Revelations Against Egypt: Paper Tiger:

Ezekiel 29:132:32

Preview

The judgment oracles begin with indictments against Israel (Ezek. 4-25); they end, not as one might expect with a case against Babylon, but with indictments against Egypt, Israel's historic foe. Egypt is the seventh nation in this judgment series against small states and empires (chaps. 25-32). It is targeted by seven revelations, each prefaced with the formula [p. 381], The word of the Lord came to me.

The first revelation, like revelations four to six, is directed against Egypt's leadership. It presents the central issue with which the Lord confronts the nations. Pharaoh, like the primeval dragon, arrogantly usurps the place of God's sovereignty. In its restoration, Egypt must become a lowly kingdom, never again to rule over the nations, never again to subvert Israel from its moral vocation to the nations by enticing it to trust in Egypt's armaments! (cf. OVERVIEW of 25:132:32).

Though the remaining revelations are largely variations on the theme of judgment, the final summation returns again to the Lord's grievance against Egypt and the nations (32:17-32). This final dirge indicts them for their violence, which flows from their arrogance. Pharaoh and the nations are sent down to the Pit because they spread terror in the land of the living (32:18-32). Ezekiel's judgments are harsh. One can tolerate them only if one shares his spiritual and moral values.

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Outline

First Revelation: The Primeval Dragon, 29:1-16

29:1-2

Date, Revelation Formula, Prophetic Address

29:3-6a

Against Pharaoh, the Primeval Dragon

29:6b-9b

Against Pharaoh, Treacherous Ally

29:9c- 16

Against Pharaoh, But for Egypt

Second Revelation: A Prophet's Exchange, 29:17-21

29:17

Date and Revelation Formula

29:18-20

The Prophet's Exchange: Egypt for Tyre

29:21

A Bright Future for Israel and the Prophet

Third Revelation: Doomsday, 30:1-19

30:1-2a

Revelation Formula and Prophetic Address

30:2b-9

Day of the Lord, the Fall of Egypt

30:10-12

Egypt's Destruction by Foreigners

30:13-18

No Hiding Place

30:19

Summary and Objective

Fourth Revelation: Both Arms Broken, 30:20-26

Fifth Revelation: Power Myth of the World Tree, 31:1-18

31:1-2a

Date and Revelation Formula

31:2b-17

Whom Is Pharaoh Like? Consider Assyria!

Assyria as the World Tree, 31:3-9

Assyria's Arrogance, Judgment, Journey to Sheol, 31:10-17

31:18

Pharaoh Cut Down with Community of Nations

Sixth Revelation: Slaying the Dragon, 32:1-16

32:1-2a

Date and Revelation Formula for a Lamentation

32:2b-10

The Dragon Hunt

32:11-15

Sword of the King of Babylon

32:16

Conclusion: Use of This Lamentation

Seventh Revelation: Sent Down to the Pit, 32:17-32

32:17

Date and Revelation Formula

32:18-28

Egypt Consigned to Sheol with Powers of the Past

32:29-30

Egypt to Lie with Israel's Neighbors

32:31-32

Punch Line: Pharaoh Consoled by Shared Misery

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Explanatory Notes

Other than the third, each of the seven revelations is prefaced by a date. They begin during the siege of Jerusalem and end, except for 29:17, shortly after its fall. [Chronology, p. 377.]

First Revelation: The Primeval Dragon 29:1-16

Whatever the original state of these oracles, they now form one unity. The statement about Pharaoh's treachery (29:6b-9b) is sandwiched between two statements about his arrogance (29:3-6a, 9c-12). The end ties back to the statement on Pharaoh's treachery (29:16a). The messenger formula does not start a new oracle but gives emphasis to Egypt's restoration (29:13). Each of the three statements ends with Egypt acknowledging the Lord (29:6a, 9b, 16b).

29:3b-6a Against Pharaoh, the Primeval Dragon

This oracle asserts Pharaoh's political arrogance (29:3b), his fate (29:4-5), and that Egypt will acknowledge the Lord (29:6a).

The great dragon (Heb.: tannin) in Near Eastern mythology was the mythic beast of the chaotic waters, who opposed the gods of order (29:3; cf. Gen. 1:21; Exod. 7:9; Isa. 27:1; 51:9; Jer. 51:34; Ps. 74:13-14). Ezekiel historicizes the myth by identifying the dragon with Pharaoh. In the description, the dragon seems to be the crocodile, which in Egyptian literature was compared to Pharaoh's majesty. The god Amon-Re says to Pharaoh Thutmose III (15th cent. B.C.), ''I cause them to see thy majesty as a crocodile, the lord of fear in the water, who cannot be approached" (ANET: 374).

The crocodile was hunted with hooks (29:4). The fish which stick to the scales are the nations which made treaties with Egypt. The myth of Egypt's political power, the crocodile, represented by Pharaoh and his armed services, will be replaced by the acknowledgment of the Lord, a new kind of political power which truly rules in history (29:6a).

29:6b-9ab Against Pharaoh, Treacherous Ally

This oracle states Pharaoh's treachery (29:6b-7), his fate (29:8-9), and ends with Egypt acknowledging the Lord (29:9b; cf. NIV).

A staff may symbolize political authority (29:6b); in Hebrew poet-

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ry this word is parallel to "scepter" (Num. 21:18). Here it is a staff of reed, equivalent to a paper tiger (cf. 2 Kings 18:21 = Isa. 36:6).

29:9c-16 Against Pharaoh, But for Egypt

This oracle again states Pharaoh's political arrogance (29:9c; cf. 29:3b) and his and Egypt's fate (29:10-12; cf. 29:4-5, 8-9a). It ends with Egypt's restoration and acknowledgment of the Lord (29:1316).

Migdol is unidentified, on the frontier in northeastern Egypt (29:10; cf. Exod. 14:2; likely east of Tahpanhes: Jer. 43:7; 44:1). Syene is in the south, near present-day Aswan, Egypt's ancient border with Ethiopia (Heb.: Cush; Aharoni: maps 15, 164). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.] The phrase is equivalent to Israel's "from Dan to Beersheba," the entire country (cf. Judg. 20:1). Jeremiah is more realistic in his concept of judgment against Egypt than is Ezekiel (Jer. 43:8-13). Complete depopulation for forty years was never experienced in Egypt's history (29:11-12).

Forty years occurs the third time to designate the time of Egypt's restoration (29:13). This may be a symbolic number, derived from Israel's experience of judgment in the wilderness (cf. 4:6). Ezekiel expects a restoration for Egypt like the one he anticipates for Israel (cf. 11:17; 20:34, 41; 28:25; Zimmerli, 2:113-114).

Pathros, site of the restored kingdom (29:14), designates Upper Egypt (south), as distinguished from Lower Egypt (north), the two parts into which it was divided from ancient times (cf. Jer. 44:1, Jews in the land of Pathros, perhaps already at Elephantine). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.] A family from Upper Egypt conquered the north to set up the first dynasty, about 3000 B.C. In this sense, Pathros was the land of Egypt's origin. A lowly kingdom in some contexts means a subject kingdom (cf. Ezek. 17:14); here, it is a small kingdom confined to Upper Egypt, without an empire. Sodom and Egypt are the two foreign peoples in the book of Ezekiel which will be restored (16:53-58; cf. Jer. 12:14-17; Isa. 2:2-4).

Ezekiel's vision for the nations is one of independent states without empire. Each will acknowledge Israel's God as Lord of history, as the One who frees the slave from state slavery. Ezekiel's main concern is that Israel be a model for the nations. As a small kingdom, Egypt will never again be relied upon by the house of Israel (29:16). If Israel rejects Egypt's politics based upon violent power and relies on the Lord who brought them out of Egypt, hope for Ezekiel's international order is not lost. The Egyptians shall then acknowledge that

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the Lord God of lowly Israel is indeed the God who leads the international community into the future.

Second Revelation: A Prophet's Exchange 29:17-21

The twenty-seventh year is 571 B.C. (29:17), the only date within this Egyptian series of revelations to deviate from the two-year period around the fall of Jerusalem. [Chronology, p. 377.] It is conjectured that in 573-572 Nebuchadnezzar gave up his siege of Tyre. This made necessary the amending of Ezekiel's prophecy that Tyre would meet its doom by Nebuchadnezzar's army (cf. 26:7-14).

An occasional unfulfilled prophecy no more invalidates prophecy than an occasional miss by the national weather bureau invalidates weather forecasting. For one thing, prophecy is not fatalistic but contingent: it depends . . . The plot of the book of Jonah is based on Jonah's knowledge of the contingent character of God's judgment: "I knew that you are a gracious God and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love, and ready to relent from punishing" (Jon. 4:2). The purpose of prophecy as stated by Jeremiah is not merely to predict the future but to persuade people to change their course (Jer. 26:2-3). For examples of unfulfilled prophecy because of repentance, compare 26:17-19; 1 Kings 21:27-29.

Some prophecies remained unfulfilled quite apart from the factor of repentance (Amos 7:11; cf. 2 Kings 20:1; Ezek. 12:27-28). Nebuchadrezzar . . . made his army work hard against Tyre in a siege of about thirteen years, apparently ending with a treaty (29:18; ABD, 6:690; on Nebuchadrezzar/Nebuchadnezzar, see note on 26:7). Tyre did not fall to Nebuchadnezzar, partly because Egypt's navy helped that island.

Ezekiel does not speculate about unfulfilled prophecy, nor does he or his disciples cover it up. Instead of booty from Tyre, its helper Egypt is given as payment for which Nebuchadnezzar has labored (29:20; cf. 20:8-9). Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel considers Nebuchadnezzar as the Lord's servant: They worked for me (cf. Jer. 27:6; cf. Isa. 10:5; 44:28). Nebuchadnezzar invaded Egypt in 568 B.C. but did not make it a part of his empire. In 332 Tyre finally fell to the Macedonian, Alexander the Great, after he led a Greek army to victory over the Persians.

Ezekiel's oracles were preserved because of fulfilled prophecy; he provided sound guidance for the exiles' political strategy in difficult times. If Judah had listened to Jeremiah and Ezekiel's warnings

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against rebellion, Babylon's armies would not have marched and Jerusalem would not have fallen.

The oracle closes with a promise to Israel as exemplar for the nations (29:21; cf. 28:24-26). Horn is a symbol of strength and dignity (Deut. 33:17; 1 Sam. 2:1, KJV), hinting that the Davidic line may be restored (cf. Ps. 132:17). I will open your lips refers to Ezekiel's inability to speak, except to convey God's message (cf. 3:26; 33:22). Because of this redemption, both Israel and Egypt shall acknowledge the Lord as God.

Third Revelation: Doomsday 30:1-19

Of the seven revelations, only this one lacks a date. Twice Ezekiel deals extensively with the theme, the day of the Lord (cf. 13:5; 39:8, 11, 13). Once he associates it with Jerusalem's end (chap. 7); here he associates it with Egypt's end. The purpose of this prophecy may be to warn the exiles that Egypt and its helpers will fall to Babylon.

30:2b-9 Day of the Lord, the Fall of Egypt

In this third revelation, day forms an envelope, occurring four times at the beginning (30:2-3) and once at the close (30:18). While the destruction of the day is localized against Egypt and its cities, it also has cosmic aspects, such as the clouds (30:3, 18; cf. Joel 2:1-11; Acts 2:19-20).

Ethiopia (30:4-5, 9) is the Greek translation for the Hebrew Cush, also called Nubia, the upper-Nile area south of Aswan, at the first cataract. Its area comprises much of present-day Sudan and should not be confused with modern Ethiopia. Kings from Cush ruled Egypt in the eighth-seventh centuries B.C. (cf. Isa. 37:9).

Put likely designates part of what is presently Libya, northwest of Egypt (30:5). Lud is identified with ancient Lydia in Western Asia Minor (Aharoni: maps 15, 116). The people of the covenant land (30:5, NIV) may refer to Judah. All these peoples likely have mercenaries in Egypt's army; they are Egypt's helpers (30:6, 8). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

From Migdol to Syene means all of Egypt (30:6; cf. note on 29:10). Ezekiel says that messengers in ships will go up the Nile to terrorize the people of Cush (Ethiopians, 30:9); Isaiah spoke of Nile vessels moving in the opposite direction (Isa. 18:1-2).

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30:10-19 Destruction by Foreigners; No Hiding Place

While the main subjects of the first oracle are the day and a sword (30:2-4, 9), the subject of the second and third oracles is the Lord throughout (30:10-12, 13-19). For the Egyptian invasion by Nebuchadrezzar (30:10), see note on 29:19. (On the name, see note on 26:7.)

Located a few miles south of modern Cairo, Memphis was one of the chief cities of Egypt's early history (30:13). As an ancient religious and political center, the city was famous for its myth in which creation happened by the thought and word of the god Ptah. Without either images or a prince, Egypt's government would be completely destroyed.

Pathros is the ancient name of southern Egypt (Upper Egypt; cf. 29:14). Thebes was its chief city, the political capital of united Egypt for most of the period from 2000 to 661 B.C. (IDB, 4:615). The list below gives Ezekiel and other biblical references for these cities:

Memphis, 30:13, 16; Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19

Zoan, 30:14; Num. 13:22; Ps. 78:12, 43; Isa. 19:11, 13; 30:4

Thebes, 30:14-16; Jer. 46:25; Nah. 3:8

Pelusium, 30:15-16

On, 30:17; Gen. 41:45, 50; 46:20

Pi-beseth, 30:17

Tehaphnehes/Tahpanhes, 30:18; Jer. 2:16; 43:7-9; 44:1; 46:14

These judgments will result in Egypt's recognition that the Lord of broken Israel is indeed God (30:8, 19). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

Fourth Revelation: Both Arms Broken 30:20-26

This revelation has five parts: (1) An introduction (30:20). (2) The report of Pharaoh's broken, unhealed arm (30:21). (3) The threat that both his arms will be broken by the Lord (30:22-23), (4) who will use the strengthened arms of the king of Babylon (30:24-26). (5) The result will be that the Egyptians will acknowledge the Lord (30:25c).

The time returns to the sequence of dates surrounding the event of Jerusalem's fall (30:20; cf. 29:17). [Chronology, p. 377.] Jerusalem fell in the eleventh year, the fourth month, the ninth day, only a few months after this revelation (2 Kings 25:3).

The word arm is a symbol of power; it is used of the Lord's power in the story of Israel's redemption from Egypt (Exod. 6:6). Here it oc-

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curs six times in five verses (Heb.: zero'a; 30:21, 22, 24ac, 25ab) to describe the victory of the king of Babylon over Pharaoh (30:25).

Some commentators have proposed that Egypt's two arms are its army and its navy, which helped Tyre. But the context suggests that it refers to the defeat of the army on two occasions. The first arm was broken in the past (cf. Jer. 37:5), and the second arm will be broken at the imminent fall of Jerusalem. See comment on 29:17-21 for the later fulfillment of 30:23, 26. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel holds that Nebuchadnezzar is the Lord's servant to punish the nations: I will . . . put my sword in his hand (30:24; cf. Jer. 27:6; Isa. 10:5).

The recognition formula [p. 380] is stated nine times in these revelations against Egypt (29:6, 9, 16, 21; 30:8, 19, 25, 26; 32:15). Its repetition here accentuates the divine purpose (30:25-26). Ezekiel proclaims again that the God whose city is on the point of falling and who has no effective military force in servant Israelthis God is nevertheless Lord of international politics.

Fifth Revelation: Power Myth of the World Tree 31:1-18

There are few texts in which, as here, a decision on a textual problem will make a difference in translating the entire passage. A comparison of RSV and NIV illustrates the problem, which centers in 31:3:

RSV: Behold, I will liken you [Pharaoh] to a cedar in Lebanon (cf. JB).

NIV: Consider Assyria, once a cedar in Lebanon (cf. KJV, NEB, NRSV).

If one accepts the RSV reading, based on a conjectured text, then the description of the tree refers to Pharaoh (31:3-17). If one accepts the NIV rendering, the tree refers to Assyria, an example from the recent past of what will happen to Pharaoh.

Many commentators (some conservative, some liberal) think an ancient scribe made a slight mistake in copying and should have put a t (taw) in front of the Hebrew word 'assur * (Asshur), thus naming a type of cedar in Lebanon instead of naming Assyria. Since the Hebrew Bible and all ancient translations read Assyria, I prefer to follow that text, with the NIV and KJV/NRSV: Consider Assyria.

The eleventh year is 587 B.C. (31:1); the first day of the third month is about six weeks before Jerusalem fell (cf. 2 Kings 25:3). At this late date, Ezekiel says to the exiles, "Do not trust Egypt nor get involved in the revolt."

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31:2b-17 Whom Is Pharaoh Like? Consider Assyria!

The questions of 31:2b and 18a directly address Pharaoh (you, sing.). They form a framework for the story of judgment on Assyria, sandwiched between. This sandwiched story uses the third person singular pronoun (it), referring to the cedar tree, symbol of Assyria (31:3). The story is told in the past tense since Assyria's capital, Nineveh, has fallen about 25 years earlier, 612 B.C.

Assyria as the World Tree 31:3-9

Assyria is described by the metaphor, a cedar of Lebanon (31:3). As such, it is a part of the community of nations: trees of the field (31:4-5, 15), cedars/trees in the garden of God/Eden (31:8ad, 9, 16, 18ab), trees . . . of Lebanon (31:16), or trees by the waters (31:14).

This is more than mere metaphor, however; Ezekiel is borrowing from the Near Eastern myth of the world tree (cf. 17:22-24; Dan. 4; Judg. 9:8-15; Mark 4:30-32). Such myths are widespread, found in Sumerian, Babylonian, Indian, and German literature. This world tree, symbolizing the Assyrian empire, was supposed to encompass all of the ancient universe. Its roots were nourished by the waters under the earth (the deep, 31:4, 15; cf. 31:7; 26:19; Gen. 1:2; 7:11). Its top was in the heavens, among the clouds (31:3, 10, 14; cf. 19:11), towering high above all the trees, the community of nations (31:5). Its boughs grew large and its branches long, stretching over the mountains and valleys of the earth (31:5, 12).

The community of nations found nourishment and security in this great superpower. It was sending forth its streams to all the trees, the nations of the world (31:4). The birds of the air and wild animals nested and gave birth in its boughs and under its branches (31:6; cf. 17:23; Dan. 4:12; Mark 4:32). In its shade all the great nations lived; they came under its protection, within its sphere of influence (31:6; cf. 31:12, 17; Ps. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 63:7; 91:1). Note a royal blessing of Sennacherib's son Esarhaddon, an Assyrian king of the seventh century: "The kingship as the plant of life may be good for the welfare of the people" (Boadt: 101, quoting Engnell).

But all was not well in this garden of Eden. The beauty of the superpower excited the envy of the community of nations (31:9). More important, the autonomy of the superpower was challenged by the introduction of the pronoun of God into the story (I, 31:9). Assyria found its nourishment in the waters of the deep, chaotic powers often arrayed against God (31:4; cf. Gen. 1:2; Isa. 51:9-10; Dan. 7:2-12;

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Mark 4:35-41; Rev. 13:1; Col. 2:15). This verse calls Assyria to account by proclaiming the authority of the Creator God, a transition to indictment and judgment which follow. Note Ezekiel's positive internationalism here: he claims that the Lord, worshiped by Israel, made Assyria beautiful (31:9).

Assyria's Arrogance, Judgment, Journey to Sheol 31:10-17

The story of Assyria's ascendancy is told without mention of God (31:3-8). Following the transition of 31:9, however, the story is dominated by the authority of the first-person-singular pronoun, I, the Lord. The Lord indicts Assyrian arrogance: Because it towered high and . . . its heart was proud (31:10; see notes on 28:5-6; cf. Dan. 8:25; 11:12, 36), . . . I have cast it out (31:11).

Several contrasts are made concerning the tree (Boadt: 94):

1. Reaches high as the clouds; falls low as Sheol (31:3, 15).

2. Grows vigorously; is faint in Sheol (31:4-7, 15).

3. Gives life to creatures; is dead with no life to give (31:6, 13).

4. Deep flows with nourishment; deep stopped up (31:4, 15; Gen. 8:2).

5. No tree like the cedar; all mock it (31:8, 16).

6. Height is magnificent; deluded pomposity (31:3, 10).

7. Which among trees has been like Pharaoh in greatness? He shall be brought down with them to the underworld (31:2, 18).

A casual reading of these oracles against Pharaoh and Egypt may cause one to conclude that Ezekiel is motivated by a narrow nationalism. But he states the lesson for all nations, the principle upon which his prophecies are predicated: All this is in order that no trees by the waters may grow to lofty height or set their tops among the clouds (31:14). To lofty height may be translated rise in pride (JB; cf. NIV) or arrogance. Since nation states are all on the way to death, they should recognize that they are one with all mortals. They belong to this world, not the world of the gods. They should not attempt to "hold sway over" each other (cf. Judg. 9:9, 11, 13, NEB) but should be content to be a genuine community of nations. Pharaoh should have learned this from the history of the Assyrian empire, which had fallen only a quarter century before Ezekiel's speech (31:14).

In Assyria's descent to Sheol, the six uses of the first-person pronoun of divinity indicate that Israel's God is in complete control of the community of nations (31:15-16; cf. KJV). For this journey to Sheol (31:15-18), see notes on 26:19-21; 32:17-32.

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Pharaoh Cut Down with Community of Nations 31:18

Following Assyria's descent to Sheol, the oracle repeats the question of 31:2, addressing Pharaoh again with the second-person pronoun, you (31:18). Pharaoh and his empire will be a rerun of the history of Assyria.

Sixth Revelation: Slaying the Dragon 32:1-16

32:1-2a Date and Revelation Formula for a Lamentation

The twelfth year, twelfth month is March 585 B.C., about one and two-thirds years after the fall of Jerusalem (587; cf. 2 Kings 25:3-4). [Chronology, p. 377.]

Appropriately, this one and only lamentation for Pharaoh occurs just before the end, when Egypt is sent down to the Pit (32:2; Heb.: qinah, lamentation: cf. 32:18; 26:17; 27:2, 32; 28:12). This lament is not at all typical; it does not describe the glory which once was, contrasted with the reduced state which now is (as in chap. 19). Also, most of the poetic meter does not correspond to the usual lament. The prophet radically adapted this form to proclaim future judgment against Pharaoh (cf. "The Funeral Song" in TBC for 19:1-14).

32:2b-10 The Dragon Hunt

The metaphor of Pharaoh the dragon forms an envelope for these prophecies against Egypt (32:2b-8; 29:3-5). The metaphor is directed against Egypt's power structure rather than against Egypt itself. The hunt ends with 32:8; feelings about the hunt are then noted (32:9-10).

The metaphor lion often designates a political leader (32:2; cf. 19:3). Among the nations emphasizes the greatness of Pharaoh. The two metaphors, lion and dragon, may be parallel (NIV; cf. Ps. 91:13) or in contrast (NRSV). Either way, only the dragon metaphor is developed further. Dragon in the seas denotes Pharaoh as the cosmic dragon which opposes God (cf. Ps. 74:13-14). The streams show Pharaoh within his own habitat, the many channels into which the Nile breaks up in its delta.

This dragon which troubles the water with its feet may be identified here with the hippopotamus or crocodile (32:2). The indictment against Pharaoh is like that against Israel's upper classes, who after drinking clear water, muddy the rest with their feet (34:18). Pharaoh's

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ecological pollution will be reversed, as stated in 32:13-14. God will make their waters clear and their streams to run like oil (32:14) by destroying the livestock on its banks. No human foot or hoofs of cattle will trouble the waters again (32:13). The figure of oil likely refers to olive oil, a symbol of opulence and fertility (32:14; cf. Deut. 8:8, KJV).

In an assembly of many peoples, the Lord will throw a net over the dragon and they (Heb. and NIV, meaning the assembly) will haul it up in God's dragnet (32:3). The net was an ancient instrument both of war and of the hunt (cf. 12:13; 17:20; 19:8; Hab. 1:15-16). In the Babylonian creation myth, Marduk, god of Babylon, uses the net to capture Tiamat, goddess of chaos:

They strove in single combat, locked in battle.

The lord spread out his net to enfold her. (ANET: 67)

The battle's aftermath has universal repercussions, affecting all the birds of heaven (cf. KJV) and the wild animals of the whole earth (32:4). The dragon, symbol of the power structure, includes Pharaoh's military forces with which wild animals will gorge themselves (cf. 32:4, 12; notes on 39:17-20). Mountains, valleys, land, and watercourses will be congested with the dragon's strewn flesh and flowing blood (32:5-6).

This universal involvement will include a cosmic dimension (32:78). All the shining lights of the heavens will be darkened: stars, sun, and moon. This is a feature of the apocalyptic day of the Lord (cf. 30:2-3; Joel 2:30; Acts 2:19-20). For darkness on your land, compare Exodus 10:21.

The lamentation shifts to the human response toward Pharaoh's demise (32:9-10). God will trouble . . . many peoples and make them appalled; they feel insecure at the end of this great power structure. As representatives of such structures, kings especially shall shudder and tremble every moment for their lives when God shall brandish the sword before them.

32:11-15 Sword of the King of Babylon

Two subjects dominate this segment of the lamentation, the sword (32:11-12) and the Lord's pronoun, I. For a discussion of the sword as an independent entity, see notes on 21:9-12 and "The Sword Chapter" in TBC for 20:4521:32. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel regards Nebuchadnezzar as the Lord's servant (cf. 30:24). The segment

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is an interpretation of the dragon metaphor of 32:2-8 (cf. esp. note on 32:2b).

The purpose of this lamentation is to induce Egypt to acknowledge the Lord (32:15). The God of the prophet Ezekiel will slay the dragon, the power structure of one of the great empires of the ancient Near East.

32:16 Conclusion: Use of This Lamentation

Like 32:2, so also 32:16 designates the poem as a lamentation. In this section on foreign nations, lamentations are chanted by princes of the sea (26:16-17), the prophet (27:2; 28:12), mariners and pilots of the sea (27:29-32), and by women of the nations (32:16). The lament is an international one, befitting the fall of a great empire.

Seventh Revelation: Sent Down to the Pit 32:17-32

The varied translations of this text will suggest to the English reader that it has many difficulties. However, the general structure is clear. It is a dirge addressed to the prophet, who is to consign Egypt to the Pit (32:18-19). There Egypt, among nations who have previously fallen by the sword, will be greeted by their mighty chiefs (32:20-21).

Egypt/Pharaoh is the main subject throughout, referred to by name and the third-person pronoun, they/he (32:18, 20-21, 31-32). Twice Egypt is addressed directly by the pronoun you (32:19, 28). All the nations who precede Egypt to the underworld are introduced by the word there (sam *, sammah*): There is Assyria, etc. (Heb. 32:22, 24, 26, 29, 30). For the date in 32:17, see note on 29:1.

32:18-21 Egypt Consigned to Sheol with Powers of the Past

In much of the OT and the Near East, the concept of the afterlife is a shadowy existence in the world below, the Pit, Sheol, the grave (32:18, 20, 23, etc.; cf. Ps. 88). This concept is qualified in Psalm 139 by the conviction that even if one should ''ascend to heaven" or make one's "bed in Sheol" (KJV: "hell"), the covenant God is present there.

The beauty (32:19) of Pharaoh's army (hordes of Egypt, 32:18) is contrasted with its reversed state in death: laid to rest with the uncircumcised (32:19). In the OT, death means to be "gathered to the ancestors" and buried in the family tomb (cf. 2 Kings 22:20; Ruth 1:17). However, in Israel the uncircumcised could not be buried in

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the family tomb (cf. Zimmerli, 1983:173). Thus the uncircumcised were excommunicated from the community in the afterlife. The term uncircumcised (32:19-20, 24, 26, 28-30, 32) is not to be understood literally; some of these nations practiced circumcision. It simply means that these nations' power structures must lie with the excommunicated, dishonorable dead in the afterlife. Note the twelve-times repeated refrain, killed/slain by the sword (32:20-32).

Assyria was the first great empire to threaten Israel's existence in Palestine (32:22); Samaria fell to this empire in the eighth century B.C. All its company means all its army. Their graves all around it indicates the placement of the burials. Especially in Egypt, there is evidence that nobles were buried around the tomb of the king. The Assyrian graves are set in the uttermost parts of the Pit (32:23); they deserve "the lowest place in hell" (cf. JB). Such are Jewish feelings for this cruel empire which had bullied and ruled Judah in the eighth-seventh centuries B.C.

The indictment against these empires and their armies is a further refrain repeated seven times throughout these verses: who spread terror in the land of the living (32:23-32). Terror, in ancient as in modern times, was the basis for the empire's "peace." Sennacherib boasts of how he dealt with Judah's king: "As for Hezekiah, the terrifying splendor of my majesty overcame him" (Luckenbill: 33; ANET: 287-288). This terror was often accomplished by a scorched-earth policy. Sennacherib boasts how he did it: "I besieged, I conquered, I despoiled [plundered], I destroyed, I devastated, I burned with fire." The boasts of emperors become the Lord's indictment against them!

Elam, east of Babylon, cooperated with Babylon to defeat Assyria. [Map of the Near East, p. 385.] Earlier, it had terrorized Babylon. It never threatened Judah, which suggests that Ezekiel's critique is not based on patriotism but on a concern for the universal rule of the Lord, who opposes the terror upon which empire and nationalism are based.

Meshech and Tubal were ancient powers in Asia Minor in the first millennium B.C. Ezekiel joins them and regards them as one (cf. 27:13; 38:2-3; 39:1).

Fallen warriors of long ago (32:27), a translation of the Greek text, refers to an ancient Near East tradition of a class of giant warriors (cf. Gen. 6:1-4; Num. 13:32-33; Deut. 2:10; 3:11; 9:2; Josh. 11:21-22; 1 Sam. 17; 2 Sam. 21:16-22; cf. Margulis). Though according to Genesis 6:1-4, they precipitated the Flood, they enjoy a better place in "hell" than do the warriors of Meshech and Tubal. For

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a translation of the Hebrew, see NIV; most commentators prefer the Greek text.

The direct address, you (32:28), likely refers back to Egypt (cf. 32:19-20). Egypt brackets this list of the great powers of the past.

32:29-32 Egypt to Lie with Israel's Neighbors

Contemporary neighbors of Israel are added to the powers listed above. Though regarded by some commentators as a later addition, they tie this conclusion to the larger treatment of the foreign nations (Edom, 32:29 with 25:12-14; Sidon, 32:30 with 28:22-23). The princes of the north may refer to leaders of Phoenician cities other than Sidon, or to the far-off norththreatening, half-mythic peoples (cf. Jer. 4:6). Not only the great empires of the past but also smaller contemporary states are indicted for causing similar terror (32:30).

Ezekiel 32:31-32 names Pharaoh for the first time since 32:2, and now three times! This provides an ironic punch line. Though all Egypt is affected, the judgment is directed against its power structure. When Pharaoh sees all these excommunicated powers in the underworld, he will be consoled because his misery is shared! The preferred 32:32 Hebrew text on terror reads, Because I [the Lord] put my terror in the land of the living (cf. KJV). Ezekiel regards Pharaoh as the rod of God's anger (cf. Isa. 10:5); nevertheless, Pharaoh is responsible for the terror and will be punished.

The Text in Biblical Context

The Lord's Demand and the Dragon's Arrogance

These oracles against the nations provide a background model for understanding the NT concept of the relation of the state to the church (cf. Rom. 13; Rev. 13). Ezekiel's foreign empires and states had their own gods; they did not worship the God of Israel. Yet Ezekiel as a member of the community of faith addresses them. He ignores their gods and calls them to account in the name of the International One, the Lord God, worshiped by Israel.

The kinds of sins or indictments for which Ezekiel scores these nations are important, for they show how the Lord holds nations responsible:

1. The first type of indictment is addressed to the immediate neighbors of Judah. The Lord threatens them with judgment because they gloat over Jerusalem's collapse and turn it to their self-

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advantage (25:3, 6, 8, 12, 15; 26:2). As moral and spiritual leader of the nations, Israel is vulnerable to the threat of military predators. The Lord punished Israel for deserting its intended vocation; but God will call to account any nation that violates the integrity of God's helpless people (cf. notes on chaps. 25, 28; "The Pacifist Politician" in TLC for 28:1-26).

2. The second type of indictment scores Tyre and Egypt for their arrogant power myths. Tyre boasts that it is perfect in beauty, that its leadership position is invulnerable in the heart of the seas (27:3-4, 25; cf. 32:19). As arrogant leader of the nations, its prince claims divinity (28:2, 5-6). Pharaoh is the primeval dragon who claims the Nile as his own creation (29:3, 9; cf. 32:2). He is like Assyria, the cosmic tree with roots in the nourishing primeval waters, whose top jutted into the heavens, and whose branches filled the earth (31:2-14). For him, economic empire and military politics became levers of power for world dominion. Instead of acknowledging the moral and spiritual leadership of the moral God of Israel, Pharaoh enticed Israel from its intended vocation, causing it to trust in his power politics rather than in the Lord. This happened despite the fact that, measured by his own political standards, Pharaoh is only a reed-staff (29:6-7, 13-16).

3. A third type of indictment is addressed to Pharaoh in the seventh revelation: like empires before him, he spread terror in the land of the living (32:22-32). The charge that he pacified nations by violence may be compared to the charge against Tyre's king (28:15-18).

These second and third indictments, political arrogance and pacification by terror, are supported by more than Ezekiel's observation of Near Eastern history. They are corroborated by Near Eastern myth and by military practice as acknowledged in kingship records. For example, an Assyrian king of the eighth-seventh century B.C. boasts in his annals:

Sennacherib, the great king, the mighty king, king of the universe, king of Assyria, king of the four quarters [of the earth]; the wise ruler, favorite of the great gods, guardian of the right, lover of justice; who lends support, who comes to the aid of the needy, who turns [his thoughts] to pious deeds; perfect hero, mighty man; first among all princes, the powerful one who consumes the unsubmissive, who strikes the wicked with the thunderbolt; the god Ashur, the great mountain, an unrivaled kingship has entrusted to me, and above all those who dwell in palaces, has made powerful my weapons; from the upper sea of the setting sun to the lower sea of the rising sun, all humankind he has brought in submission to my feet. (Luckenbill: 23)

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This statement unites both indictments. Beginning with political arrogance and ending with "peace" by terror, it gives divine sanction to Sennacherib for both. Arrogance and "peace" by terror are related; both are considered essential to empire and the state.

Sennacherib's gods not only sanctioned him to be politically arrogant and to do terror; as a successful general, he practiced it. He writes about his first campaign: "The warriors of Hirimme, wicked enemies, I cut down with the sword. Not one escaped. Their corpses I hung on stakes, surrounding the city [with them]" (Luckenbill: 26). In his second campaign, he reports about other cities:

People, horses, mules, asses, cattle and sheep, I brought out from their midst and counted as booty. And their small cities, which were numberless, I destroyed, I devastated, I turned into ruins. The houses of the steppe, [namely] the tents, wherein they dwelt, I set on fire and turned them into [a mass of] flames. (Luckenbill: 26-27)

In short, Sennacherib pacified these city-states, just as modern empires have tried to pacify Vietnam and Afghanistan.

Ezekiel critiques the arrogance and terror of Near Eastern states from a prophetic experience of holy power. When kings of Judah are guilty of this terror, he serves them the same critique (19:2-9).

Ezekiel shares this critique with other prophets. Isaiah complains about Assyria's terror: God intended to use Assyria to discipline Israel, but Assyria's purpose is only to destroy, to remove national boundaries, to plunder treasure like one who gathers eggs from birds afraid even to chirp (Isa. 10:5-14). Ezekiel's contemporary, Habakkuk, complains that Babylon hauls up people like fish in a dragnet, people whom God created to be free; then Babylon worships its own weapons, for by them it lives in luxury. Will Babylon keep on "emptying his net, destroying nations without mercy?" (Hab. 1:13-17, NIV).

Under the very shadow of terror, the Babylonian exiles dared to claim rights for the tyrannized:

When all the prisoners of the land are crushed under foot,

when human rights are perverted in the presence of the Most High,

when one's case is subverteddoes the Lord not see it? (Lam. 3:34-36)

In this critique, the prophets are far ahead of their times. Ezekiel can be fully understood only by those who share his experience of holy power. Yet the prophet addresses this critique to the nations. It stands in our Bibles as a beacon light to the future. It forms the basis to understand the political experience, vision, and demand of Jesus.

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The Text in the Life of the Church

Chaotic Energy and the Spirit of Jesus

The Bible sees the state as energized by a primordial, chaotic power (Ezek. 31:4, 15; 29:3). This is expressed in God's salvation act against Pharaoh at the sea (Ps. 74:12-14), in the vision of the rise of the four empire beasts out of the chaotic waters (Dan. 7:1-8), and in John the Revelator's vision of a beast rising up from the sea (Rev. 13). Christians do well to acknowledge this chaotic power, unmanageable by human beings, overpowered only by the Ancient of Days, who inaugurates a different kingdom. The kingdom of the Most High is ruled not by beastly empires but only by one who is truly human, one like a Son of Man who comes with the clouds of heaven (cf. Dan. 7:11-14; Lederach: 161-163; Matt. 26:64; Gardner: 383; Col. 2:15).

Lenin, Russia's revolutionary leader (1918-1924), complained about the difficulties of running a state: "Now, however, we have lived through a year, the state is in our hands, but has it this year behaved . . . according to our ideas? No. . . . How did it behave? The machine tears itself out of our hands: as though there is a man that drives it, but the machine does not go in the direction it is driven, but where somebody, somebody illegally, somebody unlawful, God knows where he came from, either a speculator or a private capitalist or bothbut the machine moves not at all as, least of all as, the one who sits at the wheel imagines" (Fischer: 585). Perhaps the one "that drives it" is the primeval dragon, the chaotic powers.

In contrast to the chaotic energy of imperial powers, Christians are promised access to God's resurrection power, manifested in Jesus Christ (Eph. 1:19-23). They are to live by the power of this Spirit, whose fruits are "love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control" (Gal. 5:22-23). This basic contrast is the foundation for separation of the two kingdoms. The Spirit of Jesus, despite the imperfections of his body the church, leads the way for the nations into the future.

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THE GREAT DIVIDE THE LORD'S VICTORY:

REPORT OF THE CITY'S FALL

Ezekiel 33:1-33

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Overview

Of the twelve significant dates in the book of Ezekiel, two mark historical events important to Jerusalem. The first pins down the beginning of the city's siege by the army of Babylon (24:1-2). Ezekiel's initial pantomime depicted this siege (4:15:4). Its negative impact upon the person of Ezekiel was signified by its sign, the death of his wife (24:15-24). The event closed off his prophecies against the city.

The second historical date marks the coming of a messenger from Jerusalem with the news, The city has fallen (33:21-22). Again, Ezekiel's initial pantomime predicted this outcome of the siege (5:14). But the event not only closes off the oracles of judgment against Jerusalem and the nations (Ezek. 4-32). It is accompanied with a positive sign, the reversal of a malady which plagued Ezekiel from the start of his ministry (3:26-27). This cure was promised when the siege beganthe opening of his mouth, the ability to speak (24:25-27).

Between the statement of these two events, the beginning and end of the siege, lie two years' worth of Ezekiel's preaching against foreign nations, preaching which preceded and followed the announcement of the city's fall (Ezek. 25-32). Such negative preaching may have cushioned the report of the fall to the exiles somewhat, for it opened the possibility of a future in their homeland.

For Ezekiel, the report of Jerusalem's fall is the continental divide of his ministry. With opened mouth he now can proclaim that there will be a renewed people in a renewed land. Also, Ezekiel's forecast of the death of the nations is no mere nationalism. Like the death of Jerusalem, it marks a new future of the Lord's victory for Jerusalem and the nations: And they shall know that I am the Lord (33:29).

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Not Fate but Choice: Responsibility:

Ezekiel 33:1-33

Preview

For Ezekiel, the report of Jerusalem's fall is the continental divide of his ministry (OVERVIEW, above). It closes out a sentinel ministryseven and one-half years of trumpet blowing, warning Jerusalem and the nations (33:1-9; cf. 3:16-21). The tragic news opens the mouth of Ezekiel to a new ministry of promise and hope. But nowhere in all this ministry is the promise directed to the city named Jerusalem. The old Jerusalem remains dead. The last words at the end of the book christen the new city, but with a new name (48:35).

Outline

Responsible for the Fall: Prophet, God, or People? 33:1-20

33:1-9

The Prophet as Sentinel

33:10-20

Not Fate but Choice

Report of Jerusalem's Fall, 33:21-22

Aftermath of the Fall: No Repentance, 33:23-33

33:23-29

The People in the Land Take Possession

33:30-33

The People in Exile Seek Entertainment

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Explanatory Notes

The report of the messenger from Jerusalem stands at the center of this chapter (33:21-22). It is surrounded by two sets of sayings, each set introduced by the revelation formula [p. 381] (33:1-20; 23-33). The first set fixes the responsibility for this disaster. If there is to be a future, the people should know what must be changed. The second set reveals that neither the people who remain in the wasteland of Judah nor the exiles in Babylon are any different than before the city's fall. If there is to be a future, it must be the Lord's doing.

Responsible for the Fall: Prophet, God, or People? 33:1-20

33:1-9 The Prophet as Sentinel

The parable of the sentinel (33:2-9) may be divided into two parts: the parable (33:2-6) and its application (33:7-9). Interestingly, the parable occurs only here, though its application occurs also in 3:17-21. By surrounding the judgment oracles, this metaphor of Ezekiel as sentinel dominates the oracles against both Jerusalem and the nations (cf. PREVIEW of 3:16-27). This warning, directed not simply to Israel but also to a land (any land), is quite fitting since it follows the oracles against the nations (33:2).

In the parable, Ezekiel states two possibilities (33:2b-4, 6), each set forth in legal style, patterned somewhat like certain laws of Exodus 21-22: If introduces the main premise; next is a series of contingencies, each introduced by and (33:2-4); this closes with the statement of penalty, his blood . . . (33:4, NIV). The application also uses the legal style (33:8-9, cf. 2 Sam. 12:5-6). Like a good priest, Ezekiel delineates responsibility in legal terms.

Note that Ezekiel begins and ends this parable with the first-personal-singular pronoun of the Lord (I, 33:2, 6), though the parable itself is stated in the impersonal third person: the people/any/they, and the sentinel. In the law collections of the Pentateuch, even law that is impersonally stated is God's law. But in the application of the parable, the law is stated personally throughout: I . . . you (33:7-9).

The metaphor of sentinel is borrowed from the military arena (33:2; cf. 1 Sam. 14:16; 2 Sam. 18:24-27). The sentinel as a metaphor for the prophet is also found in Hosea 9:8; Isaiah 21:6-10; 52:8 (cf. TBC below). The trumpet is the ram's horn (33:3, sopar *). It was used in biblical times not as a musical instrument but as a signal in war and peace. It signaled the day of Jubilee (Heb.: yobel, ram's horn;

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Lev. 25:13), celebrated the ark processional (1 Chron. 15:28), announced the advent of a new kingship (2 Sam. 15:10), and was used to call up the militia (Judg. 3:27; cf. Josh. 6:4-13). It is employed metaphorically by Jeremiah of the prophet's warning (4:5).

For the meaning of his blood will be on his own head (33:4, NIV), see Joshua 2:19. It denotes life-or-death responsibility for an act. Sin will not merely be found out, but ''will find you out" (Num. 32:23).

In the interpretation of the parable, God rather than the people appoints the sentinel (33:7; cf. 33:2); the sentinel is not a military person but a prophet (you, son of man, NIV). The prophet does not see the sword coming (33:3) but hears a word from the Lord's mouth (33:7).

33:10-20 Not Fate but Choice

While the first of this set of two sayings begins with a legally structured parable (33:2-6), the second saying begins with a proverb (33:10). This forms a fitting unity, since law and proverb are closely related in the Bible. Indeed, a few laws stress moral duty and thus are really proverbs (Exod. 23:4-5; cf. Prov. 1:3; 3:1).

This structure, beginning with a proverb, is thereby similar to the structure of 18:1-20. There, however, children blame their fate on the fact that they are captive to the sins of the past generation (18:1). The argument introduced by the proverb of 33:10 is parallel to the argument of 18:21-29, though that argument is not introduced by a proverb (cf. 3:16-21).

Ezekiel's argument in 33:11 begins where his argument in chapter 18 ends (18:30-32; cf. 18:23). The objective of prophecy is to break the chain of fatalism, to give to the wicked the option to turn from their ways and live (33:11; cf. Jon. 3:104:2). The incident described in the narrative of this chapter (33:21-22) and all the judgments prophesied in chapters 4-32 do not need to happen. A notable feature of Ezekiel's prophecy is that his prophecies seem to be fatalistic, were it not for 3:16-27; 18:1-32; 33:1-20; and the two verses, 13:22 and 14:6. But the strategic placement of these texts calling for repentance, qualifies all the rest (cf. Fishbane: 170-187).

Is this call to repentance directed only to the exiles, or also to the Jerusalemites? This is debated. But since the call enfolds all of the judgment prophecies and fixes the blame for the event described in 33:21-22, it likely is directed at both (cf. Lang, 1981:23-25).

There is a stress on the pathos and compassion of the Lord God: I

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have no pleasure in the death of the wicked (33:11). This statement is perhaps as close as Ezekiel comes to the concept that God is love (cf. 2 Pet. 3:9; "The Prophet's Pathos" in TBC for 24:1-27).

It is evident that some to whom Ezekiel speaks are righteous (33:12), who obey the law (cf. 33:15; 9:4) and presumably do not lift their eyes to Egypt (23:27; see TBC below). There is always the danger, however, that the righteous person trusts in past righteousness (33:13) rather than in the Lord, and turns to commit sin. Besides convincing the wicked to repent, Ezekiel's mission is to keep these righteous on the Lord's track.

Ezekiel is to continue his dispute with his people, an argument begun by quoting their proverb (33:17; cf. 33:10; "What Is This Proverb?" in TBC for 12:21-28). He is to argue that the way of the Lord is just in dealing with both righteous and wicked. The argument here is a contracted version of the one in 18:25-29.

Report of Jerusalem's Fall 33:21-22

If one dates the fall of Jerusalem at 586 B.C. (cf. Greenburg, 1983:9), then the Hebrew text reading twelfth year makes good sense (NRSV, NIV). The city fell in the eleventh year of Zedekiah's reign, on the ninth day of the fourth month (Jer. 39:2; 52:5-11). The next month the citizens were deported (2 Kings 25:8-11). They arrived in Babylon a little less than five months later, in the twelfth year of Ezekiel's exile, January 585 (cf. Ezra 7:9), when the prophet hears the report. On the other hand, if one dates the city's fall in 587 (cf. Zimmerli, 1983:191), then one needs to accept the translation of Greek and Syriac manuscripts, the eleventh year (Ezek. 33:21), for the arrival of the fugitive. The date of the fall of Jerusalem is still debated.

The Hebrew word palit * occurs twice in this text; it is translated someone who had escaped (33:21) and fugitive (33:22). It occurs twice also in the prophecy about this event (24:26-27). It means essentially anyone who has escaped from a battle (Josh. 8:22). In the book of Ezekiel, it may become nearly a technical term for the Jerusalem exiles of 587 B.C. (6:8-9; 7:16). If so, then the person who came to Ezekiel is one of these many exiles recently come from Jerusalem (a disciple?).

On Ezekiel's inability to speak, see notes on 3:26-27.

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Aftermath of the Fall: No Repentance 33:23-33

33:23-29 The People in the Land Take Possession

This word from the Lord following the report has a similar pattern to the one preceding it. The unity of each is secured by the revelation formula (33:1, 23), and the second part of each is marked off with the address, As for you, son of man (33:30, 10, NIV). The arrangement of the whole chapter is chiastic: the two parts next to the report of Jerusalem's fall answer a proverb (33:11-20 answers 33:10; 33:25-29 answers 33:24). The two parts at the beginning and end portray action by the prophet (33:2-9) and by the people (33:30-33).

The waste places in the land (33:24) refers to the scorched-earth policy of Nebuchadnezzar's army (cf. 2 Kings 25:8-12). The people's proverb is based on their faith in God's promise to Abraham (33:24). Abraham, one person, was promised many descendants (Gen. 15:5), who would possess the land of Canaan (Gen. 15:18-21). The people now boast that they, the many, are heirs of this promise and, like earlier Jerusalemites who escaped the exile of 597 B.C. (Ezek. 11:15), they claim that the land is given to them to possess. They thus violate the land claims of the exiles.

Although they claim to be the children of Abraham, the people do not do his works (33:25-26; cf. John 8:39). Note how both lists end with the question of land possession. This text challenges the notion that Abraham's covenant is unconditional. For each item, see notes on chapter 18. [Worship, p. 382. Economic Justice, p. 377.]

The judgment upon Jerusalem (33:21-22) has taught these people nothing. The threatened judgment is rather stylized. Ezekiel names three of the scourges of the ancient Near East: sword, wild animals, and pestilence (33:27; cf. 14:12-20). The fact that Ezekiel does not mention the flight to Egypt (Jer. 41-44) may suggest that the prophecy was made before this event.

33:30-33 The People in Exile Seek Entertainment

Though the people in the land learn nothing from Jerusalem's destruction, the people in exile learn something. Because of his prophecy, Ezekiel has suddenly become popular. In shady places (walls, doors, 33:30) where they talk together, the people acknowledge that Ezekiel indeed speaks the word that comes from the Lord. But they are interested merely in entertainment, in "the Bible as literature," in prophecy merely as an art form (33:32). Ezekiel's prophecies are

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beautiful as works of art; perhaps some of them were sung to a musical instrument (cf. Isa. 5:1-7; 2 Kings 3:15; Ps. 137).

Though the people are right in appreciating prophecy as art, they are wrong in that they hear but will not obey (33:31-32). The people in the land honor Abraham but do not do his works (33:24-26). Those of the exile flatter Ezekiel, but their heart is set on their gain.

When this comes (33:33) refers to a double event: God will fulfill the promise made to Abraham (chaps. 34-37). At the same time, God will stand by the obligation made to the sentinel (33:4; cf. Zimmerli, 1983:202). Though they do not obey Ezekiel's word, a new fulfillment will convince them again that a prophet has been among them (33:33). This is only the second time that the term prophet is given in the recognition formula (cf. 2:5). Though the usual formula omits the prophet, as in 33:29, the prophet is essential to its understanding. The point is not that the acknowledgment of Israel's God will be made merely because of judgment, but because the people recognize that God's word, spoken by the prophet, has come to pass (cf. 33:30b). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

The Text in Biblical Context

A Prophet's Reflection

Ezekiel's first prophetic act was to simulate a siege against Jerusalem (4:15:6). Now, more than seven years later, he presents to his people two sayings reflecting on the fulfillment of that simulation (33:21-22): the prophet as sentinel (33:1-20), fixing responsibility for the fall on the people; and the attitude of the Jerusalemites and exiles in the aftermath of the fall (33:23-33).

Ezekiel's metaphor of prophet as sentinel is first used by the eighth-century prophets, Isaiah and Hosea. Isaiah's usage is hardly a metaphor, since it is used in a military situation, though in a vision (Isa. 21:1-10). Hosea's usage, however, is a true metaphor. The prophet, he says, is a sentinel of "Ephraim, the people of my God" (Hos. 9:8, RSV). Hosea's point is that although the people hate and persecute the prophet, the prophet is not responsible for the bad news since the message comes from God.

Jeremiah's use of this metaphor exactly matches that of Ezekiel. He reports the word of the Lord:

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Also I raised up sentinels for you:

"Give heed to the sound of the trumpet!"

But they said, "We will not give heed." (Jer. 6:17)

Ezekiel as God's sentinel calls Israel back to life in the good community (33:14-15, 25-26). It seems strange to both ancient and modern ears that the quality of life within the community can save it from the greed of an external enemy who worships power. But by placing these two sayings in conjunction with the narrative of Jerusalem's fall (33:21-22), this is precisely what Ezekiel means to say. Ezekiel elsewhere calls Israel to an international politics which trusts the Lord only and rejects trust in the great powers (cf. notes on chap. 23). Internal and external politics are of one piece; if greed and violence rather than the law of God rule internally, they will also rule in international relations.

The beginning of the list in 33:26 is unique to Ezekiel's lists as given elsewhere: You resort to the sword (RSV; cf. 33:15; 18:6-18). The violence which the community used to oppose Babylon is now turned inward to oppose each other. Israel was called to lead the nations in a new communal order, both internally and internationally (cf. 5:5-7). To fail in this means to perish by the swordto which Israel resorted both in their internal and external relationships. The opposite of violence is not peace, but trust in the Lord who gives peace.

Ezekiel discovered that the collapse of Jerusalem did not teach Israel anything. Those left in the land continued their violent life; they even perverted the covenant of promise to justify their possessing the land of exiled sisters and brothers (33:23-29). The exiles themselves were quite willing to grant a successful prophet his due: popularity. But they treated his work as mere entertainment (33:30-33).

If Israel does not repent even after Jerusalem's fall, what then of the future? Can there be a future in which God and Israel will be united as gracious leader and obedient community? Yes, there can be a future, but it will not be inaugurated by this narrative of the fall of Jerusalem. Judgment fixes responsibility for the past;. it does not provide impetus for the future. This new impetus is stated in chapters 34-48.

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The Text in the Life of the Church

The Canon

The word canon (Greek: canon; Heb.: qaneh, reed, measure) was first used by the church fathers to designate the body of sacred Scripture which has primary authority for shaping the life of the church (second to fourth centuries A.D.). This common body of Scripture is important to the church, for it is essential to its unity. Although there are marginal differences, all churches have essentially the same Bible.

Though the word canon was used of the Scripture relatively late, the close relationship of an authoritative word and the community of faith occurred from the beginning of the community and continued throughout its history. This relationship is apparent in the Lord's word to Ezekiel: They come to you as people come, and they sit before you as my people, and they hear your words, but they will not obey them (33:31).

Ezekiel's words are an art form. To the exiles he was like one who has a beautiful voice and plays well on an instrument. But Ezekiel's work is not "art for art's sake." That perhaps has a place. Ezekiel's art, however, is intended for the formation of a community of faith. This community may resist that authority; nevertheless, it is essential for its existence. Sooner or later, the community must return to its basic texts. Thank God, it will find them beautiful. But beyond that, they shape the community. Bible and community are closely linked.

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PART 4

THE LORD'S VICTORY:

A NEW COMMUNITY IN A RENEWED LAND

Ezekiel 34:137:28

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Overview

After the report of the fall of Jerusalem, the image of Ezekiel as sentinel is largely left behind. With opened mouth the prophet proclaims the positive phase of the Lord's victory. He begins with a promise of new leadership and ends with a pledge of a new sanctuary among God's people. There, as in The Song of the Sea, the Lord will dwell forevermore (34:1-31; 37:27-28; cf. Exod. 15:18; "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17).

As the reader will observe, the summary statement promising a new sanctuary is not yet the end of the story (37:27-28). But that is for further discussion.

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The Good Shepherd:

Ezekiel 34:1-31

Preview

Ezekiel uses his opened mouth to begin his renewed ministry with a saying on liberationa liberation not from Israel's traditional enemies, but from Israel's kings! He continues his sayings with a promise of fertility to the mountains of Israel, balanced out with judgments against Mount Seir (35:136:15). His third saying contains the Lord's famous pledge to a gathered Israel of a new heart and spirit (36:16-38). This is followed by a metaphor of resurrection: only by resurrection will the old community be raised to fulfill this promise of a new quality of life (37:1-14). The final saying is a summation which ends with an assurance that God's sanctuary will be placed in the midst of the community; there the Lord will dwell forevermore (37:15-28: cf. Exod. 15:18).

The term shepherd is a metaphor used of gods and kings in much of ancient Near Eastern literature. Ezekiel 34 is the longest allegory in the Bible on shepherds and the flock. John 10 is the next longest, where Jesus is the Good Shepherd who gives his life for the sheep.

Outline

Address to the Shepherds, 34:1-16

34:1-6

Indictment: "You Feed Yourselves"

34:7-10

Judgment Threat: "I Am Against the Shepherds"

34:11-16

Liberation: God as Shepherd

Address to the Flock, 34:17-24

34:17-19

Indictment: "You Foul the Rest"

34:20-24

Judgment and Liberation

Covenant of Peace and Security, 34:25-31

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Explanatory Notes

Address to the Shepherds 34:1-16

Except for the vision of 37:1-14, the major segments of part 4 are prefaced with the revelation formula (34:1; 35:1; 36:16; 37:1, 15). [Revelation Formula, p. 381.]

34:1-6 Indictment: "You Feed Yourselves"

The shepherd(s) are the kings of Israel, both north and south (34:2). The Hebrew noun occurs in this chapter 15 times (34:2abcd, 5, 7, 8def, 9, 10ad, 12, 23ac): eleven times as a metaphor of kings, twice of God, and twice of God's servant David. Elsewhere in this book, the metaphor occurs only once, of David (37:24).

The metaphor, used both of god and king, is found in the literature of Sumer, ancient Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt. One example as used of kings derives from the eighth-seventh centuries B.C.: "Sennacherib, . . . king of the four quarters [of the earth]; the wise ruler [lit.: shepherd, or pastor]" (Luckenbill: 23). His son Esarhaddon was called "the true shepherd" (ANET: 289; cf. 164, "Hammurabi, the shepherd").

Elsewhere in the OT, the metaphor is used in relation to Joshua (Num. 27:17), of the judges (2 Sam. 7:7; 1 Chron. 17:6), and especially of kings, both Israelite and foreign. Only once is it possibly used of a prophet (Jer. 17:16). The metaphor occurs often in the book of Jeremiah, usually of kings, domestic and foreign. Ezekiel took his inspiration from Jeremiah's "Woe to the shepherds" (23:1-4).

The Hebrew word hoy may be translated as ah or woe (34:2, NIV) and is used in lament at a funeral (1 Kings 13:30, "alas"), to introduce a threat of judgment (Isa. 5:8), or simply as a call to attention (Isa. 55:1, "ho"). In Ezekiel it occurs in a nearly parallel structure to introduce charges against the prophets (13:3, "alas").

The critique begins by saying what the shepherds do (34:3) and continues with what they do not do (34:4). [Economic Justice, p. 377.] The word harshness (perek) is used of Pharaoh's demand of Israel in Egypt (Exod. 1:13, "ruthless"). The law does not permit such treatment of fellow Israelites (Lev. 25:43, 46, 53), for they are the Lord's slaves, saved from Egypt (Lev. 25:55).

The result of the shepherds' activity is the exile: the sheep are scattered overall the face of the earth (34:5-6). In Hebrew, three synonyms are used in this chapter to indicate the proper concern of the

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shepherd: daras * (34:6, 8, 10, 11, search, demand), biqqes* (34:4, 6, 16, sought, seek), biqqer (34:11, 12ab, seek).

34:7-10 Judgment Threat: ''I Am Against the Shepherds"

The word therefore prefaces the threat of judgment (34:7). But as often in prophetic judgments, the reason for threat is repeated (34:8). Though our human focus is often upon judgment, the prophet focuses on its cause. The judgment proper begins with the Lord's oath, As I live (34:8), and continues in 34:10. The word rescue (Heb.: hissil*) is often used of the Lord's deliverance of Israel from Egypt (Exod. 18:910). When Samuel objected to the elders' request for a king, he warned that God would not deliver them though they cry out as they had done in Egypt (1 Sam. 8:18; 10:18).

34-11-16 Liberation: God as Shepherd

Other OT texts present God as shepherd (Gen. 48:15; 49:24; Ps. 23; 80:1). Ezekiel stresses the divine I throughout 34:11-16; twice he gives it special emphasis (I myself, 34:11, 15). The Lord's ego is contrasted with that of the kings, who in Israel's history writing never manage to replace the ego of the Lord.

The verbs mark progress: search, seek, rescue, will bring out, will bring into, will feed them (34:12-13). The ruthless shepherds dispersed and fragmented the flock; God's shepherding will gather it. For the promise that they will lie down (34:14), see Psalm 23:2. The strong I will destroy: this clause anticipates what is coming next (34:16; cf. 34:17-19). If the Greek text is followed (the strong I will watch over, RSV), the purpose of watching over is to restrain, since the climax is, I will feed them in justice. The prophet's vision of economics in the faith community is not unbridled capitalism.

Address to the Flock 34:17-24

34:17-19 Indictment: "You Foul the Rest"

The word justice (Heb.: mispat*, 34:16) is followed by the related word judge (sapat*, 34:17, 20, 22). The wilderness ideal is stated in Exodus 16:18: "Those who gathered much had nothing over, and those who gathered little had no shortage; they gathered as much as each of them needed" (cf. 2 Cor. 8:15). In contrast, members of the hierarchical kingship society ruined what they could not consume;

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others could not use it. Israel's problem was not merely one of human leadership, but that the strong preyed upon the weak. They rejected the leadership of the Lord, the divine way of justice as set forth in biblical story and law (cf. Gen. 18:19).

34:20-24 Judgment and Liberation

The Lord will be shepherd (34:15) and will save the flock (34:22). Yet in 34:23-24, the Lord will be Israel's God while David, the Lord's servant, will be shepherd. Is this to be a resurrected David, or a son of David? He will be so different from Near Eastern kingship that he is not called "king" (Heb.: melek) but prince (nasi' *), a term used of a leader in early Israel (cf. Exod. 22:28). This is Ezekiel's usual term for the future ruler/s (34:24; 37:25; 44:3ab; 45:7, 8, 9, 16, 17, 22; 46:2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 18; 48:21ab, 22ab). These princes of Israel are commanded: Put away violence and oppression, and execute justice and righteousness; cease your evictions of my people (45:9, RSV).

The term king is used of this servant in only one passage (37:22-24, three times); even there the Greek translation either omits the term or uses an entirely different one (archon*, "ruler," "lord," "prince"; also in 34:24; 37:25). Instead of representing Near Eastern power politics, God's servant David (34:24) will fit into God's new political order, the covenant of peace between God and Israel (34:25-31). Werner E. Lemke states,

Ezekiel and his disciples were not necessarily looking forward to restoration of the Davidic monarchy. David . . . is more of an ideal symbol of Israelite unity than a specific past or future historical figure. The final goal of the future is God's tabernacling presence among his people. (Lemke: 213; cf. TBC below)

Also, Ezekiel's prince David will lead in Israel's worship (46:2-18).

Covenant of Peace and Security 34:25-31

The climax of this new order is a covenant of peace (34:25; cf. 37:26-28; Num. 25:12; Isa. 54:10). This covenant is made by the Lord with Israel: I will make with them a covenant of peace. Interestingly, the ancient Greek translation reads with David; but the Hebrew text is correct since neither David nor the prince is ever a central figure with Ezekiel. The covenant as the foundation for peace (salom*) contrasts with the ancient Near Eastern concept of the king with his armed

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forces establishing the basis for the communal life, as stated in the introduction to Hammurabi's law code (ANET: 164-165). Here Israel is saved and gathered by God's grace rather than by human violence. For an early statement of the covenant between God and Israel, see Exodus 24:3-8.

The key result of this covenant of peace is expressed by the word securely (Heb.: labetah *, 34:25, 27, 28). It includes security from wild beasts (34:25, 28), a problem in the ancient world; security from hunger (34:27; cf. 34:29) due to God's blessing, which brings fertility (34:26); and finally, security from those who enslave them, which may include internal enemies (34:27b; cf. 34:20-22), but more specifically here, the nations (34:28). No one shall make them afraid may be translated, There shall be no terrorist (34:28; cf. 39:26; Lev. 26:6; Jer. 30:10; Mic. 4:4). What is meant specifically by splendid vegetation is uncertain (34:29), as a comparison of translations will show. However, it again speaks to freedom from hunger. In summary, this security includes economic and political freedom, and safety from the dangers of nature.

The text closes with a recognition formula and a return again to the metaphor of shepherd and sheep (34:30-31). As a result of this salvation, Israel will recognize the presence of the covenant God: their God; my people. The last verse may be translated rather literally with the NIV: You my sheep, the sheep of my pasture, are people ['adam], and I am your God. The analogy of shepherd and sheep should not be carried too far. The redeemed community is made up not of mindless sheep but of human beings. The Lord delivers them from false shepherds to make God's covenanted flock: my sheep, pasture, your God (cf. 1 Pet. 5:1-4).

The Text in Biblical Context

Ezekiel 34 and John 10

Ezekiel 34 and John 10:1-30 are the two most extensive allegories of the shepherd in the Bible. The two allegories are related to each other, as should be evident even to the casual reader. The background to the thought of John 10 is Ezekiel 34. Jesus is the door of the sheepfold, the Good Shepherd in contrast to the false shepherdsPharisees, Sadducees, and false messiahswho kill, steal, and destroy.

Some commentators reject Ezekiel 34 as background for John 10 because Ezekiel's shepherd is a metaphor for political leadership, that of kingship; John's "shepherd," on the other hand, is a metaphor

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for a religious and spiritual leadership, that of Jesus. But the key which solves the seeming difference of these two metaphors is found in two concepts, that of Messiah in John (10:24) and of David in Ezekiel (34:23).

In John the word Messiah is introduced by a question of the Jews: "How long will you keep us in suspense? If you are the Messiah, tell us plainly" (10:24). This question follows Jesus' claim to be the Good Shepherd; it introduces again the metaphor of sheep and shepherd and unites the two parts of chapter 10 (10:1-21, 22-42; cf. Brown: 406). The Jews were right in asking this because, as they understood from Ezekiel, shepherd refers to a political leader.

In the Gospels, only once does Jesus claim outright, "I am" the Messiah (Mark 14:61-62; TBC for 17:1-24). He accepts the term on the lips of someone else, as in Mark 8:29-30. But instead of flaunting a title, Jesus defines his messiahship by citing his works (John 10:25) and teaching about his mission of suffering, death, resurrection, and future judging (Mark 8:31; 14:62; Gardner: 383). Jesus identifies these works in response to the disciples of the Baptist: "Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the poor have good news brought to them" (Matt. 11:4-5).

Jesus is conscious of the worldly kind of politician who lords it over the nations; and he will have none of that, either for himself or for his disciples (Mark 10:42-45). Jesus redefines politics; he does not leave religion out of it but makes religion the essence of it. Jesus' ultimate claim to messiahship is his statement, "The Father and I are one" (John 10:30). As the Father is the Shepherd, so Jesus is the Good Shepherd, and his sheep are those who hear his voice and follow him (10:25-27). Jesus creates both a new politics and a new community which follows his political leadership.

In Ezekiel, the Lord introduces the word David after the promise that the Lord will be Shepherd of Israel, replacing the false shepherds of Israel's kingship (34:23-24; cf. 34:11-22). True religion is the essence of this Davidic politics: And I, the Lord, will be their God, and my servant David shall be prince among them (34:24). God's new order is not a covenant made with David, but one made with the new community: I will make with them a covenant of peace, the peace of God which will provide spiritual, economic, physical, and political security (34:25-31). David the shepherd must fit into this covenant which the Good Shepherd makes with the sheep.

The word Messiah (= Christ) as defined by Jesus is not far from

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the word David as defined by Ezekiel's oracle. Jesus and his community rightly claim Jesus as fulfillment of God's promise of Davidic peace (Acts 10:36; Eph. 2:13-22). This was a promise to displace the old politics demanding autonomy from the God of Israel, with the new politics brought within the covenant of God and people.

This transformation to displace autonomous politics, which rejects the Lord's leadership, has its roots in the pre-kingship Israelite tribes and their covenant with God (cf. Dietrich, 1987:155). The struggle of God's new order against the old Near Eastern politics is evident in all of Israel's traditions and is most positively stated in the great shepherd chapter, Ezekiel 34 (cf. Isa. 53). The I of the Lord will rescue Israel from the I of the king. This promise waited nearly six centuries for the claim, "I am the Good Shepherd. . . . The Father and I are one."

The Text in the Life of the Church

A Shepherd Leadership

If leadership is not to be founded upon violent power politics, is leadership then possible in Israel? Yes, for all Israel is to reject the power myth and obey God alone. The strong are not to prey upon the weak, for God demands justice (Ezek. 34:16-24). The covenant is entered into by choice (Josh. 24), and that choice includes obedience to law, including respect for rulers (cf. Exod. 22:28).

Ezekiel was a mere prophet in Babylon. The law of the Lord which he proclaimed in Babylon was not enforceable by the police (chap. 18). But because Israel's ancient law was covenant law, it was relevant even in a foreign land. Law and order were dependent not upon a kingship power myth but upon respect for the authority and power of God, God as revealed by ancient Torah and by the word of the prophet.

Jesus turns upside down the power myths of the ancient Near East. His death, resurrection, and ascension challenge the sovereign claims of worldly powers. The proclamation of this gospel to the entire world is essential to break the power myths of our modern society.

If Christians listen to the preaching of Ezekiel, they will not have to fight the overt expression of the power myth within the churcheveryone will believe in servant leadership. But this leadership is not easily achieved. Christians still need to struggle so that the use of power is consistent with the new covenant (cf. Mark 10:42-44, NIV).

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In Anabaptist tradition, pastoral leadership follows the example of Jesus' ministry. Peter's exhortation to the elders says,

Be shepherds of God's flock that is under your care, serving as overseersnot because you must, but because you are willing, as God wants you to be; not greedy for money, but eager to serve; not lording it over those entrusted to you, but being examples to the flock. And when the Chief Shepherd appears, you will receive the crown of glory. (1 Pet. 5:2-4, NIV)

It is a long way from the pastoral leadership of Sennacherib (notes on 43:1-6) to the pastoral leadership described by Peter. That revolution is via the transforming power of the old covenant, which made invalid the old power myths of Near Eastern kingship. It is via the example of the leadership of Jesus, who as Good Shepherd established the new covenant by giving his life for many (Mark 10:45; 1 Cor. 11:25).

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Mountain Versus Mountain:

Ezekiel 35:136:15

Preview

Ezekiel began this salvation series (chaps. 33-37) with a prophecy promising liberation from internal enemiesrapacious power-hungry leaders and ruling classes (chap. 34). He continues the series with this prophecy promising liberation from Judah's external enemiesrapacious power-hungry neighboring nations, especially Edom. They took advantage of Judah's weakness after 587 by occupying the land.

The movement of these two prophecies is similar. Both begin by a critique of the enemy, then describe the Lord's judgment upon the enemy, and end with the salvation of Judah. The movement is dramatized throughout this second prophecy by the terms, Mount Seir (35:2, 3, 7, 15) and mountains of Israel (35:12; 36:1ab, 4, 8); mountains (35:8; 36:4, 6) and ancient heights (36:2). The theme of salvation is a reversal of the judgment against the mountains of Israel in chapter 6.

Outline

Revelation Formula, 35:1

"Prophesy Against Mount Seir," 35:2-15

35:2-13

The Lord's Two Oaths of Judgment

35:14-15

Summary Statement of Judgment

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"Prophesy to the Mountains of Israel," 36:1-15

36:1-7

Neighboring Nations Will Be Censured

36:8-12

The Mountains of Israel Will Be Fertile

36:13-15

Israel's Stigma Will Be Removed

Explanatory Notes

The many formulas of this segment are helpful in outlining chapter 35. In chapter 36, they are mainly used for emphasis:

Revelation formula: The word of the Lord came unto me. (35:1)

Address: Son of man, set your face against Mount Seir. (35:2, NIV) Son of man, prophesy to the mountains of Israel. (36:1, NIV)

Messenger formula: Thus says the Lord God. (35:3, 14; 36:2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13)

Indictment, judgment: Because . . . therefore (35:5-6a, 10-11; 36:2-3a, 3c-4a, 5a-6a, 6e-7a, 13a-14a); as . . . so. (35:15)

Oracle formula: Says the Lord God. (35:6, 11; 36:14, 15)

Recognition formula: You shall know. (35:4, 9, 12, 15; 36:11)

"Prophesy Against Mount Seir" 35:2-15

35:2-13 The Lord's Two Oaths of Judgment

The judgment word against Edom, Israel's neighbor, addresses Edom as Mount Seir (se'ir *, 35:2, 15), a mountain range running south from the southeastern edge of the Dead Sea. [Map of the Near East, p. 385.] Compare Genesis 25:25, where a related root translated "hairy" (Heb.: se'ar*) forms a play on words with Esau's homeland. Apart from this chapter, the term Mount Seir occurs only once in Ezekiel (25:8, NRSV note).

Perpetual enmity (35:5, RSV), words used of Philistia in 25:15, may be compared to Amos's prophecy against Edom: "His anger tore perpetually" (1:11, RSV). Israel's conflict with Edom had a long history, reflected already in the conflict between Jacob and Esau, progenitors of Israelites and Edomites (Gen. 25:19-33:17). The time of Israel's calamity and final punishment was 587 B.C., the fall of Jerusalem (cf. Obad., esp. 1:13). Bloodshed shall pursue you is a strong figure, used nowhere else in the Bible (35:6). It refers to punishment for murder (cf. Hos. 1:4); here war is called murder. All who come and go may simply mean those who go to and fro (35:7; cf. Zech. 7:14).

The second segment, 35:10-13, is structurally similar to the first, 35:5-9: Because (Heb.: ya'an, 35:5, 10), therefore (laken, 35:6a,

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11a); oath (35:6b-9b, 11); and recognition formula (35:9c, 12-13). The indictment of the second segment quotes the saying of the enemy, as done four times in this prophecy (35:10, 12; 36:2, 13).

The two nations/two countries (35:10) are Samaria and Judah, though Samaria fell over a century earlier (722 B.C.). Edom never invaded Samaria. Does this statement reflect their unachieved ambition? Or does it reflect inaccurate knowledge of the exiles, removed from the situation? The Lord was there indicates that the Lord, the God of Israel, possesses these lands (35:10; 48:35; cf. 36:5, my land; Deut. 2:3-5). Despite this, the Edomites say, We will take possession.

The recognition statement (35:12) is based upon the Lord's self-revelation, I will make myself known (35:11). It is not merely judgment which is the divine self-revelation, but judgment as the fulfillment of the prophetic word. The phrase, mountains of Israel, used by Ezekiel 17 times, refers to the land of Israel, a land made up mainly of mountains (35:12).

35:14-15 Summary Statement of Judgment

This third segment has some structural similarities to the previous ones, though the words are different: As . . . so (Heb.: ke . . . ken) and recognition formula (35:15). The law of retribution dominates this prophecy and is stated succinctly in 35:15: As you rejoiced over the inheritance of the house of Israel, because it was desolate, so I will deal with you; you shall be desolate. Salvation is achieved by divine intervention which annuls this law (Hos. 11:8-9; Rom. 5:8). Yet Jesus acknowledges the law's validity: "All who take the sword will perish by the sword" (Matt. 26:52; cf. Gal. 6:7).

"Prophesy to the Mountains of Israel" 36:1-15

36:1-7 Neighboring Nations Will Be Censured

The rest of the nations may be translated the remnant or what is left of the nations (36:3, 4, 5; cf. KJV; also, 5:10; 9:8; 11:13; 25:16). They try to take possession of the Lord's land. Slander may be translated whispering (36:3; cf. Prov. 10:18; Ps. 31:13; Jer. 20:10) or "bad report" (Gen. 37:2, NIV).

Ezekiel speaks of the Lord's jealousy six times (36:5, 6; 5:13; 23:25, NIV; 38:19; 39:25), four times in favor of Israel and twice against Israel (cf. Exod. 20:5; 34:14). In Joshua 24:19 it is associated with God's holiness; it may be rendered as zeal (Ezek. 36:5, NIV).

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36:8-12 The Mountains of Israel Will Be Fertile

Finally with 36:8, the Lord says what will be done for Israel. The key is the Lord's personal favor: I am for you; I will turn to you (36:9). Throughout these verses, the emphasis is on fruitfulness: fertility of fruit tree (36:8) and field (36:9), and fertility of human beings and animals (36:10-11; cf. Hos. 2:14-23). To walk upon the land is to signify possession (36:12, RSV; cf. Ruth 4:7-8; Job 1:7).

36:13-15 Israel's Stigma Will Be Removed

The fourth quotation of the enemy (36:13; cf. 35:10, 12; 36:2) indicates a reputation that is the opposite of fertility: You [the land] devour people (cf. Num. 13:32). The latter part of this quote may be translated, And you [the land] have aborted your nation. The Hebrew word is used in Exodus 23:26: "None will miscarry . . . in your land" (NIV) and in 2 Kings 2:19: "The water is foul and the country suffers from miscarriages" (JB). The figure is of the land as a pregnant woman; it is especially appropriate since the pagan cultures regarded the land as a female goddess. The abortion refers to the collapse of Jerusalem and the first and second deportation (597, 587 B.C.).

The Text in Biblical Context

The Land

At the end of a "Christian century" marked by its wars, it may be relevant to consider an alternative vision to that of the territorial state. That alternative vision is graciously given in the biblical concept of the land.

In the biblical view, the pagan idea of "blood and soil," "the center" (motherland, fatherland) for which people fight and die, is exchanged for life lived in the light of God's promise. This promise frees the disciple from the "territorial imperative," a biological concept which explains even the song of the birds as a means by which they guard their own turf.

Land is the fourth most frequent noun in the OT (Martens, 1981:97). The covenant made to Abraham in Genesis 15:7-12, 17-18 has to do with the promise of land. This promise should not be "spiritualized." It was given to Abraham and Sarah when they were politically weak. God's promise gave them and the ancestral clans a political will to exist as a separate people over against the strong

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Canaanite city-states among which they sojourned. Theirs was a politics of promise.

Abraham was called out from a ''territorial state," from a social order based upon land or territory: "Go from your country (Heb.: 'erets, "land") and your kindred and your father's house" (Gen. 12:1). The land was the soil upon which peoplehood was based. In the Hebrew, there is a strong emphasis on separation; the word "from" occurs three times (cf. Gen. 12:1, KJV). Called out from a social order based upon land ("blood and soil"), Abraham was called to "a land that I will show you," a land based upon relationship with God's promise. Although land is still important to the human community, no longer does it have the same immediacy. The immediacy is changed from land and people ("blood and soil") to God and people; land is dependent upon God's promise. Identity is no longer defined primarily by territory (Canaanite, American, Canadian, Mexican) but instead by relationship to God (Christian).

A covenant is different from a contract. A contract centers on living up to an agreement. A covenant centers on intimacy, loyalty, and grace, with the possibility of some change in vision (Martens, 1981:72-73). This vision of land experiences some change already within the Pentateuch, and certainly within the Bible.

The Bible defines three occasions of Israel's landlessness. First, the time of the ancestors who sojourned (gur) in the land of Canaan, the hospitable land promised to them (as "aliens," Gen. 19:9; 20:1; 21:23, 34; 26:3; 35:27). Second, the time when God made the Israelites wander (nu') in the wilderness, the inhospitable land where they lived by God's intervention (Num. 32:13). Third, the exile, a time of displacement and discontinuity (Brueggemann: 6-8). In each period of homelessness, they could live as a people without land because of their primary orientation to covenant, to "God and people." Freedom from state slavery and the charter of covenant law gave them community solidarity while still outside the land. Instead of living in the land, they lived in anticipation of the promise.

The prophet Ezekiel spoke in the time of exile. To those who still lived in the land, he threatened that it was the end because of their bloody crimes (chaps. 4-7). It was the end of their time in the land because of Judah's abominations, which drove the Lord from the land (chaps. 8-11). With covenant relationship broken, God left the land to go into exile with the people.

However, for Ezekiel the land of Israel is still the Lord's land: my land (36:5). Because the Lord is There, Edom is not to possess it

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(48:35; 35:10). The Lord is zealous for the land and will return Israel to it (36:6-12).

Christians who are inclined to identify the present state of Israel with the return prophesied by Ezekiel, however, should remember that the new Israel is to trust in the Lord for its security; it is not to integrate with military powers (chap. 23). Ezekiel's Israel will be a resurrected Israel with a new heart and spirit (chap. 37; cf. chap. 36). It will not be a secular state but a community gathered about the worship of the Lord in a temple not made with human hands (chaps. 40-48).

The Jews in exile limited the first Hebrew canon to five books, Genesis through Deuteronomy; they omitted Joshua, the story of the fulfillment of land. Thus, the first and primary canon of the Jews ends not with Israel in the land, but with a vision of the land (Deut. 34:1-8). The question of land remains as an open possibility, not as an established fact. Not a land but covenant and promise were essential to their political existence; they made possible Israel's peoplehood even when Israel was outside the land.

In the NT, the ancestors are presented as pioneers of faith, living in the land of promise "as in a foreign land"; they are "strangers and foreigners on the earth," "seeking a better country, that is, a heavenly one" (Heb. 11:8-16).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Christians as Exiles

Christians who invoke God as Father are called to holy conduct, for God is holy. As a holy nation, they are to live in their social situation as "aliens and exiles," abstaining "from the desires of the flesh that wage war against the soul" (1 Pet. 1:15-17; 2:9-11). While both Hebrews and 1 Peter were written at a time of considerable persecution, this concept of deferred reward and living in the light of promise is typical of the entire NT (cf. Matt. 6:1-4). Disciples wait for the place which Jesus is preparing for them (John 14:2).

The Christian's present citizenship is "with the saints" and "the household of God." Built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets with Christ as the chief cornerstone, they form a "holy temple, . . . a dwelling place for God" (Eph. 2:19-21). Thus, both future and present concepts of the Christians' "place" are determined by covenant relationship with God. The root of this reorientation from territory to relationship with God runs deep. It taps finally into God's

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promise to the ancestors: instead of "they found a plain in the land of Shinar" (Gen. 11:2, RSV), the new word is "Go from your country [land] . . . to the land that I will show you" (12:1). From this covenant relationship to land flows a new ethic in regard to community (Gen. 11:4c; 12:2a) and destiny (Gen. 11:4d; 12:2bc). From this perspective OT and NT speak with one voice in regard to the territorial state.

This politics of promise is important to legitimate the Christians' sojourn among the powerful states of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries A.D. Faith communities have often migrated out of a desire to be loyal to the call of God. The church is not merely one of many organizations within the territorial state. Instead, it has special political duties and rights given it by God over against the territorial state. By claiming these political rights, the church can lead the state to acknowledge the Lord as political leader of our global village.

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A New People in a Renewed Land:

Ezekiel 36:16-38

Preview

In the Bible, the words new heart and new spirit occur only in the book of Ezekiel (18:31; 36:26; cf. 11:19). These words dominate the unique emphasis of this capstone of Ezekiel's three sayings on renewal. Following the promise of a new shepherd leadership (chap. 34) and a renewed land (35:136:15), this third saying pledges that there will be a renewed people. Israel's outward life will be cleansed, their inward life will be re-created and activated by the divine Spirit, and their communal life will be guided by divine statutes.

In this emphasis on renewal, Israel is involved as the second of three partners. The first partner is the Lord, who is the actor throughout. The Lord must act for the second partner, Israel, in order to preserve God's own integrity with the third partner, the nations. Israel's renewal is at the center of this drama and can be understood only within it.

Outline

Revelation Formula, 36:16

Address to Ezekiel: The Lord's Predicament, 36:17-21

Address to Israel: Response to the Predicament, 36:22-32

36:22-23

God's Motivation for Action: The Name

36:24-30

God's Five Acts for Israel

First Act: From the Nations, Into the Land, 36:24

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Second Act: Cleansing with Water, 36:25

Third Act: New Heart and New Spirit, 36:26

Fourth Act: Gift of God's Spirit, 36:27-28

Fifth Act: Saved from Uncleanness; More Fertility, 36:29-30

36:31-32

Israel's Response: Shame, Dismay for Evil Ways

The Nations Shall Recognize the Lord, 36:33-36

Israel Shall Recognize the Lord, 36:37-38

Explanatory Notes

Address to Ezekiel: The Lord's Predicament, 36:17-21

The Lord tells Ezekiel a sad tale. It is the story of Israel and the land (36:17, NIV), the subject throughout the chapter. Three partners are involved in this account (36:21; cf. Zimmerli, 1983:248). The first is the Lord, the actor throughout, the antecedent of all the first-person-singular pronouns as subject, I (36:16, 18, etc.). The second is the house of Israel (36:17; cf. 36:21, 22, 32, 37). The third partner is the nations; their importance is evident since they are named nine times (36:19, 20, 21, 22, 23bd, 24, 30, 36).

The story has three movements. It begins with the house of Israel in their own land (36:17, NIV; Heb.: 'adamah). Then they had to go out of his land (36:20, RSV; Heb.: 'eres *). Finally, I will . . . bring you into your own land (36:24, 'adamah). The two Hebrew terms for land are synonyms here. This land is both Israel's land and the Lord's land (36:17, 20), concepts harmonized by the statement about the land ['eres] which I gave to your ancestors (36:28).

Israel's problem in the land is its conduct (36:17). To show how detestable this is in God's sight, Ezekiel uses a sexual simile: like the uncleanness of a woman in her menstrual period. The law states that bodily emissions, such as a man's emission of semen or a woman's menstruation, renders that person unclean (Lev. 15, esp. 15:16-19, 32-33). Certain social and worship restrictions and cleansing rites were required of persons who were unclean.

Ezekiel does not speak to ceremonial issues here, but uses this simile to illustrate the seriousness of Israel's ways and their deeds (36:17), more specifically, their violence (blood . . . they shed) and idolatry (idols, 36:18). These are sins against fellow human beings and God which violate both tables of the Ten Commandments. When such acts are frequent (or portrayed frequently, as on televi-

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sion), they may actually seem less sinful than ceremonial infractions! Ezekiel's point is that they are not. Violence and idolatry are sins against covenant holiness which are incompatible with the holy land; they defiled it, made it unclean.

The Lord responded to this problem by cleansing the land: I poured out my wrath, . . . scattered them, . . . judged them (36:18-19). But these actions only result in the Lord's predicament, the point toward which this story moves and with which it deals: They profaned my holy name (36:20; cf. "For My Name's Sake" in TBC for 20:1-44). Israel profaned the name not by what they do in exile but just by being there. The nations know that the Lord's people and the Lord's land belong together (36:20), but they assume the reason for their separation to be divine powerlessness rather than divine holiness.

Address to Israel: Response to the Predicament 36:22-32

36:22-23 God's Motivation for Action: The Name

The nations as the third partner in this triangle are important. They must know and acknowledge the holy name as the revelation of holy power which is able to achieve its goals for history (36:23; cf. 36:35-36). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] Holy people, holy land, holy name are all defiled and polluted; and the greatest of these is the holy name. To sanctify God's great name is the motivation for God's new act before the eyes of the nations (cf. 20:9, 14, 22). God's holiness will have to be displayed by means of the second partner, Israel (through you, 36:23). This promise of return to the land must have seemed impossible to the exiles.

Contrary to Hosea and other prophets, Ezekiel does not regard love as God's motive for saving Israel: Not for your sake (36:22) will I save you (36:29). "Steadfast love," "mercy," "love," "faithfulness," and the noun ''salvation" are not in Ezekiel's vocabulary (cf. Zimmerli, 1983:247-248). Ezekiel seems far from John 3:16. But neither does God act out of self-love; instead, the Lord acts for the sake of the name, for the sake of God's revelation to the nations. The objective is the recognition by both Israel and the international community that the God of Israel alone is the holy power in history who is able to create and sustain the good community. This is not so far from the motivation of divine love as might appear superficially. But it grounds God's act in the divine self in a way, perhaps, which the concept of love cannot do.

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36:24-30 God's Five Acts for Israel

God acts to sanctify the divine name (36:23) first by uniting the people with their own land (36:24), answering the problem posed by the nations (36:20). Note the verbs and prepositions: take you from, . . . gather you from, . . . bring you into . . . (36:24). Ezekiel does not downgrade the importance of the people's environment, their land.

God's second act speaks to the problem of the people's past, their uncleanness (36:25) which made them incompatible with the land (cf. 36:17). Only a holy people can live in a holy land. Ezekiel uses language of religious ritual (sprinkle, clean water, clean, uncleanness, cleanse; cf. Lev. 15; Num. 8:7). Yet the cleansing is from idols and from violent conduct (36:18), actions prohibited by basic covenant law (Deut. 5:6-21). In the history of Bible interpretation by the church, this act has been understood as pointing to Christian baptism.

God's third act demands of Ezekiel a breakthrough in metaphors: new heart, new spirit (36:26; PREVIEW). Jeremiah's parallel expression, "new covenant" (31:31), is often picked up by the NT church (Matt. 26:28, NRSV note; Mark 14:24, NRSV note; Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25; 2 Cor. 3:6; Heb. 8:8, 13; 9:15; 12:24). However, the NT never uses Ezekiel's metaphors of new heart and new spirit.

In the Bible, the heart is not so much the center of feeling as of thought and will. This "new mind" speaks to the condition of the unresponsive mind, the heart of stone (36:26; cf. 11:19; 18:31). Elsewhere Ezekiel speaks of the stiffhearted, hardhearted, whorish heart (KJV: 2:4; 3:7; 6:9). Jeremiah speaks of the "stubborn and rebellious" and "evil heart" (Jer. 5:23; 7:24, KJV). The NT uses the metaphors "hardness of heart,'' "do not harden your hearts," "evil . . . heart," "fleshly tables of the heart" (Mark 3:5; 6:52; 8:17; Heb. 3:8, 12; 4:7; 2 Cor. 3:3, KJV).

God's fourth act is to put the divine Spirit within them (36:27). This is to be distinguished from the new spirit of 36:25. In the Bible, God's Spirit empowers and causes things to happen. Here, it will cause Israel to walk in God's statutes, to observe God's ordinances. The Spirit does not make law unnecessary but will empower Israel to do it. This answers Israel's problem of idolatry and violence, of defiling the land with their own ways and doings (36:17-18, KJV).

In all of these acts, the Lord addresses Israel with the second-person-plural pronoun: Ye shall be my people, and I will be your God (36:28, KJV). The covenant structure is individuated; the individual is important but is within community rather than against community.

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God's final act is to increase the land's fertility, again by making Israel compatible to the land. Only three times does this book use the important Hebrew word yasa' * (save), identifying God's action (34:22; 36:29; 37:23). Fertility has to do with grain and fruit of the tree, with emphasis on no famine (36:29-30).

Israel's Response: Shame, Dismay for Evil Ways 36:31-32

Ezekiel begins this oracle by stating the divine motivation for the five acts (cf. 36:17-23); he ends it by stating what Israel's response will be to these acts. He says nothing about repentance as a preface to God's gift of the new heart and redirected life. Remembrance and reflection come not first but last. The house of Israel is to remember so that they may loathe themselves for their iniquities. Salvation is from Israel's evil ways, but it is pure grace. How does one coordinate this teaching with chapter 18, where Ezekiel calls Israel to repent in order that they might not die, but live (18:30-32)?

The Nations Shall Recognize the Lord 36:33-36

The final two oracles of our segment enlarge on Israel in the land. The first emphasizes rebuilding and replanting (36:33-36). The statement of the nations that the desolate land has become like the garden of Eden contrasts with their earlier observation (36:35, 20; cf. 28:13; 31:9-18). It effectively solves the Lord's predicament, the profaning of the holy name (36:20-21). The word fortified poses a problem, since the prophecy of 38:11 portrays an Israel without walls. Ezekiel may use this word here merely to emphasize the splendor of the cities (cf. Rev. 21:12).

The oracle climaxes with a recognition statement: The remnant of the nations (cf. 36:5) shall know that I, the Lord, have rebuilt . . . and replanted (36:36). Ezekiel here is influenced by the call of Jeremiah; beyond destruction, the prophet is "to build and to plant" (Jer. 1:10). The nations about Israel are not entirely destroyed by judgment (chaps. 25-32); their remnant will share in a recognition of Israel's God. They will recognize not only that Israel's exile was caused by judgmentby the Lord's holiness rather than powerlessness (36:20)but also that this Holy Power achieves its positive goal by establishing the good community in the renewed land.

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Israel Shall Recognize the Lord 36:37-38

Repopulation is the subject of the second oracle (36:37-38). The people (36:37, NIV) will increase like the flock at Jerusalem (36:38). This reference to sacrificial flock hints at the people's holiness, tying the oracle to this concern within the chapter (36:20-23, 25, 31-33).

While the first oracle ends with the acknowledgment of the nations (36:36), the second oracle climaxes in Israel's acknowledgment of the Lord (36:38). Both the nations and Israel will recognize that violence and worship of the gods of violence lead to a dead end (36:18-19). The way to the future is with the holiness and worship of the God who gives a new heart and spirit.

The Text in Biblical Context

Inner Renewal and the Three Partners

Ezekiel's famous saying on inner renewal is set within the context not of two partners, God and Israel, but of three partners, God, Israel, and the nations. The word nation(s), referring to foreign peoples, occurs more often in this segment on inner renewal than in any other section of similar length in Ezekiel's book. To correct their wrong perception of God, caused by the exile, the Lord must act again on behalf of Israel (36:20b, 36; cf. chap. 20). This context, God's concern for self-revelation to the third partner, the nations, is essential in order to understand the Lord's acts of renewal for Israel.

Israel, the second partner in this relationship, is the means by which God will reveal the divine self to the nations. That revelation was blocked by conduct repulsive to God. Israel's two cardinal sins were violence against human beings and idolatry, disloyalty to God. In this charge, Ezekiel is no Don Quixote, attacking meaningless windmills. Modern archaeology corroborates, for example, Ezekiel's charge of idolatry. At thousands of ancient Israelite sites, female figurines have been found, suggesting the popularity of the worship of the Canaanite goddess Asherah. Archaeological and biblical evidence indicate that the worship of this mother goddess was popular until the end of the monarchy (Dever: 148; cf. 2 Kings 18:4; 23:4). Monotheism was possible only because of persons such as Moses, Elijah, Ezekiel, and their followers.

Jeremiah and Ezekiel realized that because of the depth of Israel's sin, God must act again for Israel in a new dispensation. For Jeremiah, the law must be written upon the heart; for Ezekiel, God must create in Israel a new heart and spirit, and place the divine Spirit

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within (Jer. 31:33; Ezek. 36:26-27). This work will be entirely that of the first partner in the triad, the Lord. While Israel in exile is admonished to get a new heart, Israel for this new dispensation must be given it (18:31). It will be a new creation (cf. Ps. 51:10). It is this new work of God which Jesus instituted at the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. 11:25).

For Ezekiel, however, this renewal of heart can change the mind of the nations only as it is closely connected with Israel's life, secure in the renewed land (36:28, 35). The biblical theme of land is complex ("The Land" in TBC for 35:136:15). But here Ezekiel's point is that only a people with a new heart and spirit is compatible with a holy and renewed land. Israel will be returned to their land not by violence nor self-help but by the Lord, who will create inner renewal. Ezekiel has yet to deal in a final way with the violence of empire which threatened Israel's relation to land throughout much of its history (chaps. 38-39).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Bible Interpretation and Ezekiel 36

Several years ago, touring the naval academy building at Greenwich, England, I saw emblazoned on the wall of its chapel the words, "The meek shall inherit the earth." For both British empire and for Jesus, land and earth are very important. But whoever placed these words in the chapel did not realize that for Jesus they are a polemic against empire (Matt. 5:5).

Brueggemann complains that although the covenant formula in 36:28b has

often been noticed . . . , less frequently remarked is that this formula is accompanied by a land formula: "You shall dwell in the land. . . . You shall be my people, and I will be your God." Surely the combination of land formula and covenant formula is not accidental. The two ideas, in land and in covenant, belong together. (Brueggemann: 141)

In the history of interpretation these two ideas, "land" and "covenant," fell apart in the nineteenth century. Wellhausen wrote that what the prophets

were unconsciously laboring towards was that religious individualism which had its historical source in the national downfall. . . . With such men as Amos and Hosea, the moral personality based upon an inner conviction burst through the limits of mere nationality; their mistake was

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in supposing that they could make their way of thinking the basis of a national life. Jeremiah saw through the mistake; the true Israel was narrowed to himself. Of the truth of his conviction, he never had a moment's doubt. . . . But instead of the nation, the heart and the individual conviction were to him the subject of religion. (Wellhausen: 491)

Contrary to Wellhausen, the prophets' conviction was not merely that the subject of religion is "the heart and the individual conviction." Instead, the essential ingredients for Israel's future life in the land were God's law written on their hearts (Jer. 31:33), and a new heart and spirit which obeys covenant law (Ezek. 36:26, statutes, ordinances). Israel lost the land, said Ezekiel, precisely because of its idolatry and its violence (36:18-19), because of disobedience to covenant law.

On the other hand, Ezekiel's contemporary King Zedekiah was convinced that to remain in the land depended upon armaments and alliance with Egypt. He would have agreed that the promise "the meek shall inherit the earth" belongs on the walls of the chapel of a navy academy. Ezekiel, however, placed the promise within the context of God's holy name, of cleansing, the gift of a new heart and spirit (36:28). Jesus placed it within the context of blessing and demand, the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:5).

God is the great change agent, making compatible the inner life and the environment. This dual transformation is the church's message.

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Can These Bones Live?:

Ezekiel 37:1-14

Preview

People who know little of the book of Ezekiel nevertheless chant the refrains, "Ezekiel saw a wheel" and "the leg bone connected to the hip bone." The powerful images of this chapter have attracted the attention of artists, songwriters, and poets from the pre-Christian era to the present (cf. Author's Preface, p. 13).

Modern interpreters generally agree that this vision is not about literal resurrection of dead bones of Israelites. Instead, it is about the renewal of Israel's life and return to their home. Nevertheless, the analogy is borrowed from an ancient concept of resurrection, and from early times both synagogue and church have interpreted it as a literal event. This vision describes no mere resuscitation of life which continues on the same previous plane, but a genuine resurrection of life from an old to a different order. Resurrection is the means by which the Lord will fulfill the three preceding sayings on renewal: a renewed community with a new heart and spirit, living in a renewed land, with a new shepherd leadership (36:16-38; 35:1- 36:15; 34:1-31).

This vision is occasioned by the despair of the exiles: Our bones are dried up, and our hope is lost; we are cut off completely (37:11b). The vision is autobiographical, narrated by Ezekiel, as are the other three great visions (1:43:21; 8:111:25; 40:148:35). It is proclaimed to the exiles, probably sometime between the dates presented in 33:21 and 40:1, around 572 B.C.

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Outline

Ezekiel's Visionary Experience, 37:1-10

37:1-3

The Prophet Considers the Dry Bones

37:4-8

The Prophet's Address to the Bones

37:9-10

The Prophet's Address to the Wind

The Vision Interpreted, 37:11-14

37:11

The Interpretation

37:12-14

The Prophet's Address to Israel

Explanatory Notes

The most important structural item of this segment is, The hand of the Lord came upon me, setting this visionary experience off from the three preceding sayings (37:1; cf. 36:22, 33, 37). This is followed by formulas of dialogue: And he said to me (37:3-4, 9, 11, KJV). And I answered (37:3, KJV). The vision is punctuated with three messenger formulas [p. 380] and three recognition formulas [p. 380].

Ezekiel's Visionary Experience 37:1-10

37:1-3 The Prophet Considers the Dry Bones

The hand of the Lord denotes the power of God, a phrase used of God's act against Israel's enemy as well as against Israel (37:1: Exod. 9:3; Deut. 2:15; Judg. 2:15; 1 Sam. 5:6). In relation to the prophets, the phrase is used only of Elijah, Elisha, and Ezekiel. It enabled Elijah to do an unusual act (1 Kings 18:46) and Elisha to prophesy (2 Kings 3:15, NIV; cf. Isa. 8:11; Jer. 15:17). The phrase occurs in the book of Ezekiel seven times, describing the pressure under which the prophet is placed (1:3; 3:14, 22; 8:1; 33:22; 37:1; 40:1; cf. Greenberg, 1983:41-42). The key term throughout this vision is spirit (ruah), in a repeated word-play. It occurs ten times, translated as the Lord's Spirit (37:1, 14; cf. RSV), breath (37:5, 6, 8, 9bcf, 10), and winds (37:9e). These translations reflect the whole gamut of OT meanings of the term (Lemke: 312). The Lord's Spirit at beginning and end forms an inclusio for the entire vision (37:1, 14). All that happens between is by the power of this Spirit.

The valley refers to a definite place, perhaps where Ezekiel received his first vision (37:1; 3:22, 23; 8:4). The many bones suggests the site of an old battlefield (cf. 37:10, army, NIV). The observation

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that the bones are very dry (37:2) stresses the impossibility that life may be in them (cf. 38:11).

From the perspective of human experience, there can be only a negative answer to the Lord's question, Can these bones live? (37:3). Is Ezekiel hedging? Does he despair? He stands in the tradition of a God who kills and makes alive (Deut. 32:39). From that perspective, he can turn the question back to God.

37:4-8 The Prophet's Address to the Bones

God enlists the prophet in this impossible task (cf. 1 Cor. 1:1821). For the power of the word of God to revive the situation, see Isaiah 55:10-11. As Ezekiel informs us of the details of ancient international commerce (chap. 27), so here he itemizes ancient understandings of human anatomy: bones, breath, sinews, flesh, skin, breath (37:5-6). This knowledge of detail, explained partly by his education as a priest, suggests that Ezekiel has an inquisitive mind. Note here the emphasis on breath (ruah *).

Only in 37:7 and 10 does Ezekiel say that he prophesied as he was commanded. Elsewhere, he reports that the Lord spoke to him (cf. 37:12-14); it is then assumed that he communicated this speech to Israel. Ezekiel reports his obedience because he is an actor within the vision; his action is an essential part of the vision. For a statement of obedience to a command demanding prophetic action, see 12:7.

37:9-10 The Prophet's Address to the Wind

The prophetic act is in two stages (37:7-8, 9-10), as is God's act in the story of creation (Gen. 2:7). God first forms the human being "from the dust of the ground," then breathes into this being "the breath of life." For Ezekiel, however, breath does not come directly from God but from the four winds, universal primeval powers which serve God's purpose (37:9; cf. Jer. 49:36; Zech. 2:6; Dan. 7:2; 8:8; 11:4).

The words slain (37:9) and army (37:10, NIV) hint that this vision may have been of a battlefield, though this is not central to the vision. Perhaps the prophet indicates by this that Israel has been defeated on the plane of world history. The nations have conquered Israel.

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The Vision Interpreted 37:11-14

37:11 The Interpretation

The first part of this verse is an interpretation of the vision: these bones are the whole house of Israel. The second part speaks to the condition of Israel. Though not physically dead, their political plight is regarded as death, a descent to the Pit, cut off, just as such disasters are counted elsewhere in the Bible (cf. Ps. 88).

37:12-14 The Prophet's Address to Israel

The prophet is commanded to address the bones (37:4), the breath (37:9), and now Israel (say to them, 37:12). He begins not by belittling their assessment but by confirming it. He speaks of their graves, either a trench in the ground or a tomb cut in a hill (cf. IDB, 2:471). Either is different from the description of the unburied bones of 37:1-2, but this does not affect the concept of resurrection.

Although the whole house of Israel correctly analyzes their situation (37:11), there yet is hope because of God. Note the repetition of the resurrection statement: When I open . . . , and bring you up (37:13; cf. 37:12). This repetition is united with the covenant formula, my people. The resurrection will happen because God will not forget this covenant relationship (cf. Ps. 139:7-10).

As in 36:16-38, this new act of God includes the promise of land (37:12, 14, 'admah; cf. NIV). Likewise, 37:14 includes the promise, I will put my Spirit within you (cf. 36:27). The resurrection is no mere resuscitation and continuation of the old relationships in the land; instead, it is an elevation to a new plateau of life. This elevation to a new plateau is characteristic also of the bodily resurrection of Jesus.

The prophecy ends with the recognition statement [p. 380], made in this segment three times (37:6, 13, 14). Israel will know that the God of a people whose hope is lost (37:11) is the Lord, God of the exodus (Exod. 3:13-15). This God determines the course of history "not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit" (Zech. 4:6).

The Text in Biblical Context

Resurrection in the Bible

The resurrection of Jesus is a central theme of the gospel as proclaimed by the early church (Acts 2:32). The Sadducees opposed the early Christian movement because of this proclamation (Acts 4:1-4).

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While the resurrection is a central theme of the NT, it is not central to the Old. It is generally agreed that only two OT references teach that there will be a bodily resurrection (Dan. 12:1-2; Isa. 26:19; cf. Lederach: 253-256, 262-266). Other references deny it (Job 14:7-12). Because this teaching occurs only at the end of the OT period, many scholars suppose that it was borrowed from Persian religion.

Recently, however, this supposition has been challenged (Greenspoon). Persian sources are probably too late to have influenced the Bible; also, the Persian concept is quite different from that presented by the Bible. Here is my digest of Greenspoon's article and a few musings upon it.

1. Greenspoon asserts that Daniel 12:1-2 and Isaiah 26:19, promising a bodily resurrection, are the end of a development which began in early Israel, with the concept that the Lord is a warrior. The Lord is a warrior who saves Israel from its enemies (death) and leads Israel into a land of abundant fertility (life; cf. Exod. 15:1-18; Deut. 32; Hab. 3:1-16).

2. The Bible does not make an absolute break between misfortune and death. For example, Psalm 30:2-3 says,

O Lord my God, I cried to you for help,

and you have healed me.

O Lord, you brought up my soul from Sheol,

restored me to life from among those gone down to the Pit.

It is evident that this person has not actually died, though resurrection language is used. The sick or threatened one descends into Sheol, the abode of the dead. The healed or rescued one is raised out of this Pit.

3. Raising Israel from death to life is entirely the work of the Lord. This is stated in two of Israel's early hymns: "I kill and I make alive; I wound and I heal" (Deut. 32:39). "The Lord kills and brings to life; he brings down to Sheol and raises up" (1 Sam. 2:6). The theme of the first hymn is similar to that of Ezekiel: God has punished Israel for their sins by giving them into the power of the enemy. But now God will redeem Israel from the enemyGod will make them live again!

Ezekiel's vision of dry bones is a muted representation of the Lord as warrior. The Lord's human agent is a prophet instead of a warrior-king. The prophet's instrument is the Lord's word rather than military weapons. The battlefield issues in life instead of death.

4. Ezekiel's promise of increased fertility like the garden of Eden and waste cities filled with flocks of people (Ezek. 36:35-38) is essen-

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tially the same idea as the promise of resurrection in chapter 37. From here it is only a step to the development of Daniel 12:1-2 and Isaiah 26:19, the anticipation of bodily resurrection.

What difference does all this make for understanding the death and resurrection of Jesus? OT analogies of death and resurrection have to do with the community of Israel rather than with a dying and rising god. The Canaanite god, Baal, dies and rises again; the God of Israel never dies. Paul regards the resurrected Jesus as the first fruits of the dead community (1 Cor. 15:20-23). Jesus initiates that new community of which Ezekiel has spoken. Believers understand Christ's death and resurrection as God's act in disarming ''the rulers and authorities," making "a public example of them, triumphing over them" (Col. 2:15). This is the ultimate evolution of the concept of the Lord as warrior.

The experience of the resurrection of Jesus is not a NT aberration borrowed from a pagan culture. Its roots penetrate deep into the ancient biblical quest for the new community.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Ezekiel and Church Hymnody

Although Ezekiel was known by his contemporaries as a singer, "one who has a beautiful voice and plays well on an instrument" (33:32), he has not inspired much hymnody. A hymnal published in 1992 lists only six hymns with allusions to Ezekiel (Hymnal: 881). This sparsity does not apply to the OT as a whole, for by far the most favored book of the Bible is the Psalms, with 279 entries.

One song from this hymnal refers to a prophet's call, listed as that of Ezekiel. Another is inspired by "the stream which flows from Jehovah alone" (Ezek. 47:1-12). Four others allude to God the Good Shepherd (Ezek. 34:11-31). But Ezekiel's famous vision on resurrection has no entries; it seems to have inspired no hymns at all!

In other hymnals, Ezekiel fares even worse. Is it only African-American music which has been inspired by Ezekiel's imagery of resurrection? (cf. Author's Preface, p. 13).

Ezekiel's book cannot be understood by a casual reading, and that may be why he has not inspired more hymnody. But if his contemporaries were impressed by his metaphors and storytelling (20:49; cf. 21:5, JB), and if they gathered to hear him because he was like a singer of love songs (33:32), perhaps a little more attention to his work would inspire new creativity and enrich Christian worship.

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Eternal Covenant of Peace: One People Around God's Sanctuary:

Ezekiel 37:15-28

Preview

The report of the fall of Jerusalem (24:25-27; 33:21-22) forms both the climax of the oracles of judgment against Judah (chaps. 4-24) and an envelope for the oracles of judgment against the nations (25-32). So also the oracle of Israel's unity around one sanctuary (37:15-28; chaps. 40-48) forms both the climax of the oracles of salvation (34-37) and an envelope for the oracles against Gog (38-39).

The prophecy of both report and oracle is stated in future tense (24:25-27; 37:15-28); the realization of both is stated in past tense (33:21-22; chaps. 40-48). This comparison of "realization" is valid even though chapters 40-48 are a vision; the vision is narrated in past tense as a measurable, "realized vision" of a temple surrounded by a territory made not by human hands.

The first part of this oracle completes the salvation oracles (chaps. 34-37) by promising the unity of Israel and Judah (37:15-23). The second part of the oracle, besides relating to the temple vision (chaps. 40-48), provides a summary of the salvation oracles (37:24-28). The unity of these two parts is likely an editorial one, provided by Ezekiel himself or his close disciples.

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Outline

Introduction, 37:15

Prophetic Act: Two Leaves, One Tablet, 37:16-19

One Nation, Saved from Disloyalty, 37:20-24a

Eternal People Around God's Eternal Sanctuary, 37:24b-28

Explanatory Notes

Prophetic Act: Two Leaves, One Tablet 37:16-19

The key word of 37:16-24b is one ('ehad *), which occurs ten times in the Hebrew text (a stick, 37:16a; another stick, 16c; join them together, 17a; one, 17ab, 19gh, 22ab, 24b). Israel has been two kingdoms (37:22), beginning from the death of Solomon (922 B.C.) and continuing until the North was incorporated into the Assyrian empire (722).

The Hebrew word rendered stick ('es*, 37:16, 17, 19, 20) is usually translated tree (17:24) or wood (24:10, NIV). This metaphor has been understood in different ways. Modern interpreters have suggested two sticks grafted together, or two property title deeds for Joseph and Judah placed together to form one title deed for Israel (cf. Zimmerli, 1983:273-274).

Of ancient understandings, the Greek translation (rhabdos) suggests the idea of two ruler's scepters joined together to become one (cf. Esther 4:11; 5:2; 8:4). In Numbers 17:2-10, where "staff" or "rod" (RSV; Heb.: matteh*, 17:17) is translated "scepter'' (rhabdos, 17:17) in the ancient Greek, the name of one tribe was written upon each of the scepters. The ancient Aramaic paraphrase renders "stick" as "tablet" (cf. Isa. 8:1; Zimmerli, 1983:273). Following this lead, the NEB translates, Take one leaf of a wooden tablet and write on it, "Judah . . ." Then take another leaf and write on it, "Joseph. . . ." Now bring the two together to form one tablet; then they will be a folding tablet in your hand (37:15-16).

The Lord anticipates that this prophetic act will provoke a question from the people, which will then occasion the interpretation (37:18; cf. 12:9; 21:7; 24:19).

Note how the prophet represents the Lord. In the prophetic act, the prophet is to join the sticks in his hand (37:17, your hand); in the

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interpretation, the sticks are joined in the Lord's hand (37:19, my hand). While Ezekiel is specifically interested in political unity here (37:22), this political unity is first of all in the Lord's hand. This basic unity of being in God's hand should be recognized even when there is no human administrative unity of God's people (cf. TBC below).

One Nation, Saved from Disloyalty 37:20-24a

These verses describe a movement in three parts: bringing the people from the nations to their own land (37:21); making them one nation in the land, with one king (37:22); saving them from their apostasies, their disloyalties to God (37:23). [Worship, p. 382.] The covenant formula adds weight to the third point, the climax: my people, . . . their God (37:23b).

The Hebrew verb yasa' * (save) occurs three times in this book (34:22; 36:29, 37:23). In the first reference, the word is used in its usual OT sense, redemption from external enemies or troubles. In the last two references, the word is used of redemption from the internal enemy, one's own impurities and disloyalties. In the entire OT, only in Ezekiel is this word used of salvation from one's own self! Thus Ezekiel prepares the way for the NT emphasis: "You are to name him Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins" (Matt. 1:21).

Eternal People Around God's Eternal Sanctuary 37:24b-28

The key word of 37:24b-28 is forever ('olam), occurring five times (forever, 37:25cd; everlasting, 26b; forevermore, 26d, 28). In the phrase my servant David (37:24-25), Israel's king is subjected to the God of the covenant (37:23b). For Ezekiel and kingship, see discussion on chapter 34. The emphasis here is on one shepherd.

Law in Israel is oriented to the Lord rather than to the king: my ordinances, my statutes (37:24; cf. "Kept Free by the Law" in TBC for 18:1-32). [Economic Justice, p. 377.] Both people and king are subject to the law, which is situated within the structure of covenant between God and people. This situation is characteristic of all law collections of the Pentateuch (Gen.-Deut.).

Land likewise is related not to kingship but to the Lord's promise to the fathers (37:25; cf. "The Land" in TBC for 35:136:15). Ezekiel's emphasis here is on permanence: for ever (37:25cd, RSV;

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37:26bd, 28). The prophet is presenting the final solution to the problems of covenant relationship, leadership, land, and political-religious structure (cf. TBC below).

Covenant of peace (Heb.: salom *, well-being) includes God's blessing (I will bless), fertility (I will multiply), and the presence of God (I will set my sanctuary among them, 37:26; cf. notes on 34:25-31). Israel's well-being depends on the Lord delivering the people from the nations and gathering them into the land (37:21). In contrast, Near Eastern well-being depended upon violent pacification by an army. For example, a Sumerian king of about 1865 B.C., Lipit-Ishtar, writes that the gods called him "to the princeship of the land in order to establish justice in the land, to banish complaints, to turn back enmity and rebellion by force of arms (and) to bring well-being to the Sumerians and Akkadians" (ANET: 159).

The climax of this text is the Lord's sanctuary (37:26-28). This, along with 20:40, anticipates Ezekiel's final vision, a people gathered around worship and obedience to the Lord (chaps. 40-48). Here two terms are used of the temple. Sanctuary (Heb.: miqdas*, 37:26, 28b) is related to the word sanctify (meqaddes*, 37:28a): the Lord makes Israel a holy nation (goy qados*, Exod. 19:6) with God's sanctuary set in its midst. The second term for temple is dwelling place (miskan*, 37:27), often translated tabernacle (KJV; cf. Exod. 25:8-9 for both terms). A synonym for "tabernacle" in the book of Exodus is "tent of meeting" ('ohel mo'ed, Exod. 29:10), where God meets with the people. The book of Exodus has its end and climax in building the tabernacle. Similarly, the book of Ezekiel closes with a vision of building the temple.

Although Ezekiel's longer temple vision is not related to the nations, here the recognition formula makes this relationship (37:28). Besides denoting separation, to sanctify means to remove resistance to divine leadership. Israel's servant leadership (37:24-25), obedience to covenant law (37:24b), an eternal covenant of peace (37:26), blessing (37:26c), and an eternal sanctuary in its midstthese are public evidences of God's action to create the good community. God leads the nations to make this acknowledgment.

The Text in Biblical Context

The Sum of the Matter

"This is the sum of the matter." Careful readers give special attention to summaries. Since this is especially appropriate in a book like

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Ezekiel, made up of a series of segments, I will briefly review the main themes of this summary of the salvation oracles (chaps. 34-37).

1. Unity. A major theme is unity, an emphasis on the term one. This is the message of the prophetic act: the two sticks become one (37:16-19). The interpretation speaks of the people of Israel (37:21), one nation (37:22), one king and one shepherd (37:22, 24). Although the salvation oracles do not emphasize unity as a special theme (but cf. 11:19, one heart), they do however speak to the whole nation: house of Israel (35:15; 36:10, 16, 22, 37; 37:11), mountains and heights of Israel (34:13-14; 35:12; 36:1, 4, 8), land of Israel (36:6).

This unity is not merely organizational, but unity in the hand of God (cf. 37:19). Elijah recognized this fundamental unity when he built the altar on Mount Carmel of twelve stones (1 Kings 18:31). Amos, a Southerner, promoted it by prophesying the Lord's word to the North. Josiah furthered it by cleansing Northern worship from idolatry (2 Kings 23:15-20; 2 Chron. 34:6-7). Jeremiah acknowledged it by declaring Israel more righteous than Judah, and by calling the North to repentance, promising return to Zion (Jer. 3:6-14). This theme of the one people of God is emphasized in the NT (John 17:20-26; Eph. 4) as a reality to be expressed and pursued by the church.

2. Leadership. A second emphasis of this summary is that Israel's problem of leadership will be solved (37:22, 24-25; cf. chap. 34). Again, Ezekiel's point is not simply that there will be one king, one shepherd (37:22, 24), but that future leadership will be different from traditional political leadership, to match the difference of Israel itself from the rest of the nations. It is not a leadership based upon fear of violent power, but a "servant" leadership (37:24-25; cf. 34:23-24). This means a leadership in the service of the people by being first of all in the service of the covenant God (cf. Deut. 17:18-20; 1 Sam. 10:25; Isa. 42:1-4).

This difference is expressed even in the terminology used for the future ruler. The term used elsewhere is always prince (Heb.: nasi' *, 34:24; 37:25; 44:3; 45:7, 8, 9, 16, 17, 22; 46:2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 18; 48:21, 22). Although king is used twice in this text (melek, 37:22, 24), even here in the Greek Bible the translation (archon*) is that commonly used for the Hebrew nasi' (as in 37:25). The Greek text shows that Ezekiel possibly used prince (nasi) even in 37:22, 24 (maybe changed by copyists to melek). If this is so, Ezekiel made a distinction not only in theory of what a Hebrew political leader should be, but

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also in vocabulary. A different vocabulary was likely also used in early Israel (cf. 1 Sam. 10:1; notes on Ezek. 34:24; "Ezekiel 34 and John 10" in TBC for 34:1-31). This difference of political leadership is also to distinguish the church (Mark 10:42-45).

3. Land. Israel is to be one nation in the land (37:22). It is obvious that land is important to all the salvation oracles, since it is emphasized in each one. Israel is not, however, to be a "territorial state" (cf. "The Land" in TBC for 35:136:15). Perhaps this is why Jerusalem, named 23 times in the judgment oracles (chaps 4-24), is named only once in the salvation oracles (chaps. 34-48), and then only as a simile for the prosperity of the towns (36:38). This neglect is deliberate. Jerusalem will be renewed and transformed in relation to power, a transformation that includes a new name (cf. "YHWH SHAMMAH: Reflections on the Political Theology of Ezekiel" in TBC for 47:1348:35).

Renewal in the first instance is related to the entire land. The people's relation to land is one of promise (37:25), associated with obedience to covenant law (37:23). Not military might, but worship and obedience to their one God will insure their living in the land (cf. "The Land" in TBC for 35:136:15). Thus Israel must be "saved" not merely from external enemies but also from themselves: freed from disloyalty to the God who gives them liberty, and freed from oppressing the neighbor (37:23).

4. Covenant of Peace. In this context, peace or well-being means blessing, fertility, and the presence of God within the community. It may be compared to God's covenant-making with Noah after the judgment of the Flood. When the warfare of judgment was over, God established the covenant, the new order between the divine self, Noah, and every creature (Gen. 9:15). Ezekiel's peace is based upon God's delivering the people from the nations and bringing them into the land (Ezek. 37:21).

5. Sanctuary. The temple is not mentioned in any of the salvation oracles in chapters 34-37 (but cf. 20:40). It is something of a surprise, therefore, to see it as the climax of this summary (my sanctuary, 37:26, 28), and even more as Ezekiel's final and longest vision (chaps. 40-48). It is firmly tied, however, to the three great visions of the book: Ezekiel's call (1:13:15), the Lord's departure from the temple (1:13:15; chaps. 8-11), and the Lord's return to it (43:1-5). The temple vision is essential to the structure of the book (cf. "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17).

The presence of this sanctuary within Israel is also essential to the

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achievement of Ezekiel's international goal. That goal is the nations' recognition that the Lord makes Israel holy, that the God of this powerless nation creates the good community (37:28). That community, by which the nations might recognize the Lord, finds its identity in the worship of this sanctifying God.

The Text in the Life of the Church

So That They May Be One

As Ezekiel had a vision of the unity of redeemed Israel (37:15-28), so Jesus prayed for the unity of his disciples (John 17:11, 20-23). Though their views of unity are somewhat different, the two concepts stretch out toward each other. Ezekiel's vision reaches out toward Jesus, and Jesus' vision reaches back toward Ezekiel.

For both, unity is given by God. In Ezekiel's vision, God is the subject: I will take . . . , I will make . . . , I will save . . . , I will be their God (Ezek. 37:21-23). Israel and Judah are one in the hand of God (37:19). In Jesus' prayer, he asks God for unity on behalf of both present and future disciples (John 17:9, 20). This does not mean that disciples are to be passive, but that any action on their part is a response to God's action for them.

In Ezekiel's vision, the unity is relational, as expressed in the covenant formula: I will be their God, and they shall be my people (37:27; cf. 37:23). This relational unity has both vertical and horizontal dimensions: Israel's common life with God is expressed by the blood of covenant sacrifice (cf. Exod. 24:6, 8), and Israel's common life is to be together as God's people. In Jesus' prayer, the model of unity is the relation of Jesus to the Father: "that they may be one, as we are one" (John 17:11, 22). This relational unity also has vertical and horizontal dimensions. Disciples are in the Father and the Son, as Father and Son are mutually in one another (17:21). "They," the disciples, participate in this koinonia, a common life in God (cf. Acts 2:42-47).

In Ezekiel's vision, God's human leader is David, who as shepherd will feed the flock, rather than to feed upon them (Ezek. 37:22, 24-25; cf. chap. 34; "Ezekiel 34 and John 10" in TBC for 34:1-31). In Jesus' prayer, he claims "authority over all people," and he gives eternal life to all whom the Father has given him (John 17:2). Both Ezekiel and Jesus turn their backs upon power politics to proclaim community in the worship of God. Both expect the expression of this

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unity to have its effect upon the world (Ezek. 37:28; John 17:21).

How is this unity to be expressed by the disciple today? "The Johannine outlook is not overly ecumenical; 2 John 10, for example, forbids the Christian to say welcome to anyone whose doctrine is not orthodox!" (Brown: 775). But the Christian churches have in common the Bible and a professed acceptance of its authority. The discussion of the authority and meaning of this common text for life in today's world is the most fundamental expression of the unity of the community of faith (cf. John 17:20; Acts 2:42; "The Canon" in TLC for 33:1-33). The expression of this unity will cause the world to turn toward or away from Christ (cf. John 17:21).

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PART 5

THE LORD'S VICTORY:

DEFEAT OF IMPERIALISM, ARROGANCE, AND TERROR

Ezekiel 38:139:29

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Overview

The high drama of the book of Ezekiel climaxes in the Lord's battle against Gog. Though this narrative interrupts the texts on temple building (cf. 37:26-28; 40:1-5), it resembles the flow of an ancient liturgy which gives structure to the entire book (cf. "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17).

The drama begins with a vision of God's war chariot and Ezekiel's call (chaps. 1-3). This is followed by the first battle scene against Judah, who rejected its calling as a holy community to lead the nations to a knowledge of God (4-24). The flow continues with the second battle scene against the nations, who subverted God's intention to redeem history through Israel as exemplar (25-32).

Now, at the end of the salvation oracles (33-39), the drama issues in the Lord's final victory over Gog. Gog stands for that arrogant imperialism which, like Pharaoh at the sea (Exod. 14-15), opposes God's alternative leadership as represented by Israel, a community with a new heart and spirit in a renewed land.

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Gog's End in the Land of the Quiet People:

Ezekiel 38:139:29

Preview

For Ezekiel, Gog may have been a code word for a legendary sovereign who ruled over menacing northern powers on the edge of the then-known world (Zimmerli, 1983:302; cf. Jer. 4:6). His army was composed of soldiers, not from nations near Israel, but from a far-off circle, representing the earth's rim. Ezekiel's polemic is directed against this legendary symbol of the world's power structuresagainst princes, with horses and charioteers, with warriors and all kinds of soldiers (Ezek. 39:19-20).

Gog and his army are a symbol of human community based upon self-help and violence, opposed by Ezekiel throughout his ministry. Thus Gog is a symbol of a Jerusalem more turbulent than the nations (5:5-7), a symbol of Israel's rulers who devoured humans (19:3, 6), a symbol of an Israel which integrated into Near Eastern military structures (23:5, 12, 23)and above all a symbol of nations and empires who violated the integrity of Israel's leadership, who spread terror in the land of the living (32:23-32; cf. PREVIEW of 1:13:15). This Gog, symbol of self-help and violence, the Lord destroyed forever upon the mountains of Israel, the land of the quiet people who live in safety, without walls, bars, or gates (38:8, 11; 39:4, 17).

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Outline

Introduction, 38:1

God Versus Gog, 38:2-13

38:2-9

''I Will Put Hooks in Your Jaws and Lead You Out"

38:10-13

"You Will Devise an Evil Scheme"

Gog Versus Israel, 38:14-23

38:14-16

"You Will Come Up Against My People Israel"

38:17-23

"I Will Summon the Sword Against Gog"

Gog Destroyed on the Mountains of Israel, 39:1-16

39:1-8

"You Shall Fall upon the Mountains of Israel"

39:9-10

"Israel Will Make Fires of the Weapons"

39:11-16

"I Will Give Gog a Place for Burial"

A Sacrificial Feast on the Mountains of Israel, 39:17-20

Concluding Remarks, 39:21-29

39:21-24

Gog's Defeat Will Teach Israel and the Nations

39:25-29

Exile and Gathering Will Teach Israel

Explanatory Notes

The unity of these two chapters is well served by the one revelation formula: The word of the Lord came to me (38:1). [Revelation Formula, p. 381.] The four parts are introduced by the Lord's address to the prophet: Mortal, or better, Son of man (NIV, 38:2, 14; 39:1, 17).

God Versus Gog 38:2-13

38:2-9 "I Will Put Hooks in Your Jaws and Lead You Out"

God addresses Ezekiel throughout this book as mortal (38:2, Son of man, NIV/RSV). It indicates his humanness and weakness in contrast to God, who empowers him (cf. 1:282:2). The expression set your face toward/against (cf. KJV), borrowed from Israel's worship, is used 14 times in the book; here it occurs for the last time (4:3; 13:17; cf. 3:8; Lev. 20:3, 5-6). Gog is the final enemy against whom the Lord's face is set. For Sennacherib's face, see notes on 38:10-13.

The tradition of Gog occurs elsewhere only in Revelation 20:8 (cf.

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1 Chron. 5:4). Never successfully identified as a historic person, Gog is probably a mythic figure representing empire and military politics which historically threatened Israel (cf. Ps. 48:4-8), and in which Israel was tempted to trust (Ezek. 29:16). Gog is from Magog (cf. Rev. 20:8, where this land becomes Gog's co-conspirator). Mistakenly, some have identified him with Russia because of the Hebrew word ro's *, which means chief (38:2; cf. TLC below). Gog is chief prince of Meshech and Tubal, confederated with Bethtogarmah (38:6), three ancient lands south and east of the Black Sea (cf. Gen. 10:2; Aharoni: maps 15,116). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

From an ancient point of view, these lands were the remotest parts of the north, associated with threats of barbaric invasions (38:6; cf. Jer. 4:6). Gomer, also a northern threat, is mentioned in Assyrian literature (Ezek. 38:6; Gen. 10:2-3; 1 Chron. 1:5-6). Put, northwest of Egypt (Ezek. 38:5; 1 Chron. 1:8; Nah. 3:9); Ethiopia to Egypt's south (Heb.: Cush, Nubia); and Persia, east of Babylonthese make up the rest of the seven nations, the rim of the ancient world (Aharoni: maps 5, 15; notes on Ezek. 27:10-25). It is important that Ezekiel use these "rim nations" as the Lord's final antagonists, so that the nations that are left all around Israel might acknowledge Israel's God (cf. 36:36).

Although Ezekiel's prophecy is based on the threat of barbaric people from the north, Gog's army is not a primitive one. It is equipped with the sophisticated weaponry of the ancient Near East: horses and horsemen, full armor, shield and buckler, swords, buckler and helmet (38:4-5).

In the first paragraph, God's control of Gog is expressed by the first-person-singular pronoun: I am against you (38:3), I will turn you around, I will lead you out (38:4). In the second paragraph, this control is suggested by the three imperatives (38:7, NRSV), by the detailed description of what Gog will do (38:8-9), and finally even by what Gog will think and say (38:10-13).

38:10-13 "You Will Devise an Evil Scheme"

Gog in his thoughts replaces the divine pronoun of 38:3-6 with himself: I [Gog] will go up, I will fall upon (38:11). This corresponds to the writing of ancient Near Eastern annals. Sennacherib boasts, "I raged like a lion, I stormed like a tempest [cf. 38:9, 16], with my merciless warriors I set my face against . . ." (Luckenbill: 51; cf. Ezek. 38:2). In the ancient Near East, the chief political officer with his troops was regarded as the "kingpin of history." In contrast, the

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prophet is addressed as mortal (38:2); he does not control history as leader of armies but is dependent entirely upon the I of God, which he proclaims.

In contrast to the stormy advance of Gog, Israel is the quiet people . . . , living without walls, and having no bars or gates (38:11). The Hebrew words correspond closely with those describing the political naïveté of the people of Laish (Judg. 18:7, 27). However, this politics is more like that advocated by Isaiah (7:4; 30:15; 32:17): living in safety is dependent entirely upon obedient trust in God.

As Gog's army is not primitive, Israel's culture is not primitive either. The former waste places are now inhabited, and the people are acquiring cattle and goods (38:12). They are not a marginal people but live at the center of the earth. The word center may be translated navel (NRSV, note) and suggests the concept of the "mythological center," mother earth's umbilical cord which sustains all peoples (likely borrowed from the Canaanites, Judg. 9:37, RSV). But in Ezekiel the idea denotes Israel's election (5:5). Gog's army, though formidable, is peripheral; it comes from the rim of the earth (cf. notes on 38:6). God's quiet people (38:11), on the other hand, living at the center, are the umbilical cord for the nations, essential to their life.

Gog's intention is to seize spoil and carry off plunder (38:12). The world's merchants are excited at this, perhaps hoping to benefit (38:13): Sheba in South Arabia (1 Kings 10:1; Ezek. 27:22-23), Dedan in West Arabia (27:15 with NRSV note, 20), Tarshish, perhaps modern Sardinia in the Eastern Mediterranean (27:12, 25; Aharoni: maps 15, 116-117). [Map of the Near East, p. 385.]

Gog Versus Israel 38:14-23

38:14-16 "You Will Come Up Against My People Israel"

While Gog's intention is plunder, God's intention is that the nations may know me (38:16, 23). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.] As a prophet, Ezekiel's message is international, for the conversion of the nations. This international conversion is by means of Gog: When through you, O Gog, I display my holiness before [the nations'] eyes. God's holiness here has two sides: the destruction of Gog's peripheral power politics, and the salvation of the quiet people, those living at the earth's center (cf. Hos. 11:9, "the Holy One"). For Ezekiel, this conversion of the nations may not mean that they will became "mono-Yahwists" (monotheists, worshiping only Yahweh, the Lord),

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but that they will acknowledge the God of Israel, rather than their own militaristic national gods, as head (or at least a member) of their pantheon. Certainly it means also the acknowledgment of God's quiet people as the navel of the earth (38:11-12). For spiritual and moral leadership, they are dependent on Israel.

38:17-23 "I Will Summon the Sword Against Gog"

Because this paragraph refers to earlier prophets (38:17) and uses apocalyptic language (cf. Rev. 20:7-10), many interpreters regard it as originating from Ezekiel's disciples, a late addition. But when have earlier prophets prophesied for years that Gog would come against Israel? Neverunless Gog is a metaphor for greedy, militaristic politics. If Gog is such a metaphor, then all the great prophets have thus prophesied.

On that day occurs five times (38:10, 14, 18, 19; 39:11; cf. 39:8). It refers to the day of the Lord, the day of judgment or salvation (cf. 7:7-19; 30:2-18). Such languageshaking, quake, swords . . . against . . . comrades, torrential rains and hailstonesis used elsewhere of the Lord's war (38:1922; cf. Judg. 5:4-5; 7:22; Josh. 10:11). Then the nations shall know that I am the Lord (38:23).

Gog Destroyed on the Mountains of Israel 39:1-16

39:1-8 "You Shall Fall upon the Mountains of Israel"

These paragraphs are a repetition and continuation of the Lord's war against Gog. The violent Gog will fall in the land of the quiet people, upon the mountains of Israel (38:11; 39:4; cf. Isa. 14:25). God threatened to destroy these mountains of Israel because of their idols, symbols of the same style of violent politics as that practiced by Gog (Ezek. 6, esp. 6:4-5). But after these mountains are desolated, God again promises their redemption (36:1-15). Upon these redeemed mountains, the Lord now threatens to destroy once and for all the violent, imperialist politics represented by Gog. Coastlands again refers to the far-off lands on the earth's rim (39:6; 38:1-6, 13).

Throughout Ezekiel 38-39, the emphasis is that the nations might know (acknowledge) the Lord and know that history is controlled not by violent Gog but by the God represented and served by the quiet people (38:16, 23; 39:6-7). At the end of chapters 38-39, Israel along with the nations needs to acknowledge this (39:22-23, 28).

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God's holiness will be known (39:7; cf. 38:16, 23; notes on 20:3941).

39:9-10 "Israel Will Make Fires of the Weapons"

Here, as at the sea, the Lord will fight for Israel and they "have only to keep still" (Exod. 14:14). Yet in the aftermath of the battle, they have something to do. They will despoil Gog and his helpers of their weapons. They will recycle them for a socially useful purpose: make fires of them to heat their houses and cook food (39:10; cf. Josh. 11:6, 9; Isa. 2:4).

39:11-16 "I Will Give Gog a Place for Burial"

For the first time, Gog is no longer directly addressed. The quiet people, besides recycling weapons, shall cleanse the land (39:16; cf. 38:11) by burying Gog and all his horde. They will be buried outside the Holy Land, east of the sea (39:11, likely the Dead Sea; cf. Lev. 21:1, 11). There are a couple of wordplays in Hebrew. The unidentified Valley of Travelers is renamed Valley of Gog's Horde (39:11, 15, NRSV note). There a city is located named Horde (39:16, NRSV note). This burial activity will be done by professional persons for seven months (39:14).

A Sacrificial Feast on the Mountains of Israel 39:17-20

The role of sacrifice is reversed. Instead of animal sacrifices for the benefit of humans, the birds and wild animals will be invited to the Lord's great sacrificial feast (39:17), to eat the flesh of the mighty, and drink the blood of the princes of the earth (39:18). And you shall be filled at my table with horses and charioteers . . . and all kinds of soldiers (39:20). Ezekiel here portrays the wrath of the Lord as directed against the military base of power politics.

Concluding Remarks 39:21-29

Since Gog is not mentioned in these closing remarks, some interpreters have proposed that this segment could be better placed after the oracles against the nations (chaps. 25-32) than after these oracles against Gog. But if Gog is a metaphor (or allegory, 20:49) depicting the Lord's final victory over a military interpretation of history, then Gog does not need to be specifically named here (TBC below).

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39:21-24 Gog's Defeat Will Teach Israel and the Nations

This is the only passage where the glory (Heb.: kabod, 39:21) of the Lord is named in this book other than in the three major visions. [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.] Here, however, the glory may refer to Israel (cf. KJV), or to God's heavy hand of judgment (NRSV). Note in the recognition formulas the moral rather than militaristic interpretation of history: Israel shall know who is the I am of history (39:22); and the nations shall know that Israel went into captivity for their iniquity (39:23). [Recognition Formula, p. 380.]

39:25-29 Exile and Gathering Will Teach Israel

While the above paragraph deals with the effect of judgment upon the nations and Israel, this paragraph deals with the effect of Israel's restoration. The Lord's motive for this restoration is jealousy for the name (39:25; cf. For My Name's Sake in TBC for 20:1-44). Elsewhere Israel is told that it will bear its own shame, a possible reading here (39:26, KJV, NRSV note; cf. 16:52-54, 63). But most modern versions go with the reading, They shall forget their shame, and . . . treachery. When they live securely in their land and are no longer afraid, they will not be tempted to desert the Lord by involving themselves in Gog's kind of politics. The cycle of exile and gathering will convince them of the moral authority and power of their own I am, the Lord (39:28). Above all, the Lord says, Israel will acknowledge my authority when I pour out my Spirit upon them (39:29, NIV).

The Text in Biblical Context

A Moral Interpretation of History

"Might makes right" is a proverb which at times mocks the strongest believer. Ezekiel explicitly counters this military interpretation of history in the summation which follows the Gog prophecy (39:21-29). He challenges it not only in Israel but also among the nations: And the nations shall know that . . . Israel went into captivity for their iniquity (39:23). Even for the nations, Ezekiel replaces the military interpretation with a moral interpretation of history.

Ezekiel founds his moral interpretation not on an event which has already happened but on a futuristic prophecy. Israel's present political state is exile, a humiliating defeat whose apparent finality mocks the promise of Israel's history. How can Ezekiel "prove" that he and

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all the great prophets are right, that the house of Israel went into captivity for their iniquity (39:23)? Only by his predictive prophecy about the imperialist, Gog, whose united armies have not yet appeared on the world scene. Gog will meet his end in the land of the restored quiet people, the people of a new heart and new spirit (36:26)! Only when imperial greed is smashed on the mountains of an obedient, nonmilitaristic people, only then will the nations confess what Ezekiel and the prophets already know: that Israel went into captivity for their iniquity.

Ezekiel and the prophets already know of this power of God to save because of the testimony of Israel's tradition (cf. 20:1-16). Nevertheless, Ezekiel's moral interpretation of history is finally dependent upon the fulfillment of futuristic prophecy: that an obedient community cannot finally be undone by imperialistic greed.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Star Wars and Millennial Preachers

In his book on Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture, Paul Boyer quotes California governor Ronald Reagan's famous 1971 dinner speech to state legislators: "Ezekiel tells us that Gog, the nation that will lead all of the other powers of darkness against Israel, will come out of the north. Biblical scholars have been saying for generations that Gog must be Russia. What other powerful nation is to the north of Israel? None. But it didn't seem to make sense before the Russian revolution, when Russia was a Christian country. Now it does, now that Russia has become communistic and atheistic, now that Russia has set itself against God. Now it fits the description of Gog perfectly" (Boyer: 162).

This speech reveals how, later, President Reagan's military policy of "star wars" was buttressed by the theology of many millennialist preachers of America. Boyer tells us that William Gesenius in his Old Testament Lexicon (1828), at a time of German tensions with Russia, was the first to identify the Hebrew word ros * with Russia (cf. Ezek. 38:2, chief). This interpretation was picked up by the dispensationalist John Darby (1840) and was further developed by the scholar Wilbur M. Smith in World Crises and the Hebrew Scriptures (Moody Press, 1952). Ever since, this identification has been a staple of millennialist preachers.

Paul Boyer documents how this identification took on racial over-

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tones for some writers who presumed Russia's allies to be Asiatic peoples. For example, Hal Lindsey's book, The Late Great Planet Earth, includes a chapter on "The Yellow Peril" (Boyer: 169). Boyer tells us that while some millennialists did not envision the U.S. as forcefully involved,

many popularizers, however, envisioned a more militant U.S. role as the events of Ezekiel 38-39 unfold. As one put it in 1956, God could use America and other powers as a "rod" to destroy the attacking Soviets. (Boyer: 173)

Paul Boyer's book reminds one of R. H. Abram's book Preachers Present Arms, on the involvement of preachers in World War I. Some millennialists and evangelicals did not go along with abetting the cold war (notably, the Sojourners community at Washington, D.C., and a professor at Wheaton College). Yet the speech by Ronald Reagan reveals how the majority of the popularizers deeply impacted the nation. They influenced the attitude of a significant groundswell of American opinion for "star wars," Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). These popularizers subverted Ezekiel's warning of the final end of militarism and empire, using his warning to abet the very militarism that Ezekiel opposed!

The story of the temptation, Matthew 4:1-11, should warn disciples that Jesus is not the only one who interprets OT Scripture; the devil misinterprets it! ("The Millennium in the Hope of the Church" in TLC for 40:144:3).

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PART 6

THE LORD'S VICTORY:

ETERNAL SANCTUARY, PLACE OF GOD'S THRONE

Ezekiel 40:148:35

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Overview

Though dated late in Ezekiel's ministry, this temple vision is no mere addition to his book, tacked on after the high drama of the defeat of Gog (38:139:29). The fall of Jerusalem is forecast before the fugitive reports it. The envelope shows that. The forecast (24:25-27) and report (33:21-22) of the fall enclose the oracles against the nations (chaps. 25-32). In the same way this temple vision is preceded by its promise. Thus promise (37:26-28) and vision (40:148:35) enclose the oracles against Gog (chaps. 38-39). [Inclusio, p. 379.] Though this is a vision, Ezekiel reports it mainly in past tense, just as the fugitive reports Jerusalem's fall in past tense. For Ezekiel, the vision has an element of accomplished event and yet also a purpose for the future. A communal life can be built around this vision.

The commanding place of this temple vision becomes evident when one realizes that the flow of the book compares to that of Israel's ancient victory hymn (Exod. 15:1-18; cf. "An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17). After the defeat of Pharaoh's army at the sea (Exod. 14), the Lord built the sanctuary (Exod. 25-40), fulfilling the exodus (3:18; 5:1-3). From this "sanctuary" (15:17), ''the Lord will reign forever and ever" (15:18; cf. Ezek. 43:7).

The nations are not mentioned in this temple vision but could understand its claim. They also have epics in which their god, after victory, builds a temple to rule forever (cf. ANET: 129-142). Ezekiel's vision is a competing claim by which, according to promise, the nations will acknowledge not their power gods but the Lord, God of the exiled Israel, as the One who determines history (37:28). Ezekiel would agree with another prophet at a later temple building: "Not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit, says the Lord of hosts" (Zech. 4:6).

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The Temple Tour: Place of God's Throne:

Ezekiel 40:144:3

Preview

Ezekiel proclaimed a new leadership, a new land, and a people with a new heart and spirit within the land (chaps. 33-37). Now he envisions a new "human geography"a new relationship of the Lord to the land, and a new relationship of the people to one another upon the land (chaps. 40-48). Ezekiel's intention in these chapters is not to focus on a new plan for the temple, its measurements, as many interpreters have assumed. It is rather to call for radical social change. Ezekiel speaks not merely to the question of new space, but about who owns the space, who has access to it, and under what conditions. In doing this, Ezekiel is involved with political matters, issues involving people and power (Stevenson).

This vision of radical social change may be divided into three segments: "The Temple Tour" (40:144:3), "The Laws of the Temple" (44:447:12), and "The Land and the City" (47:1348:35). This first segment, "The Temple Tour," sets the stage for all that follows. It issues in two major events: the return of the Glory to the throne room of the temple, from where God alone rules over the land (43:1-9); and the cleansing of the temple from the defilement of kings and people, making the people acceptable to God within the land (43:18-27; cf. 43:7b-9).

Divine rule and the cleansing of a violated throne room form the basis for Ezekiel's new order. This is his contribution to postexilic Israel, whose community was formed not around palace but around worship in the temple. It is his continuing contribution to synagogue and

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church, which in divergent ways form communities of faith around the demand of worshiping one Lord.

Outline

The Date, High Mountain, and Measuring Reed, 40:1-4

Tour of the Temple Courts and Their Gates, 40:5-47

40:5-27

The Wall, the Outer Court and Its Gates

40:28-47

The Inner Court and Its Gates

Tour of the Temple and West Building, 40:4841:26

40:4841:4

Vestibule, Nave, Most Holy Place

41:5-26

Side Chambers, West Building, Paneling, Table

Tour of the Holy Chambers and Outer Wall, 42:1-20

The Glory Enters; God's Throne in the Temple, 43:1-12

Cleansing: The Altar and the Closed Gate, 43:1344:3

Explanatory Notes

The Date, High Mountain, and Measuring Reed 40:1-4

The date of the vision is emphasized: that very day (40:1; cf. 24:2). The year is 573 B.C., indicated by two reference points. The first referent is that used throughout the book, the first exile, 597; the second is the destruction of the city, 587. It is the beginning of the year, April by the Babylonian calendar, or October by the pre-exilic Israelite calendar (IDB, 1:483-487). [Chronology, p. 377.] If the tenth day of the month is in April (Nisan, Esther 3:7), it marks the preparation for Passover, celebrating deliverance from Egypt (Exod. 12:2-3). If it is in October (Tishri), it celebrates the Day of Atonement and, every forty-ninth or fiftieth year, the beginning of Jubilee (Lev. 25:8-17; cf. Ezek. 46:17).

The argument for the Jubilee date is based on the number twenty-fifth; the vision occurs halfway through the Jubilee cycle, on the tenth day of the month, the very day that Jubilee, every fiftieth year, was to be proclaimed (Lev. 25:9). As we shall see, this number and its multiples dominate the temple measurements, which deviate from the traditional dimensions of Solomon's temple (cf. 1 Kings 6).

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Is this mere chance? Or did Ezekiel on this day, half way through the Jubilee cycle, arouse the exiles with the "freedom dimensions" of his temple vision? (cf. Isa. 61:1-3; Zimmerli, 1983:346; TBC below).

The hand of the Lord denotes prophetic ecstasy associated with visions, visionary journeys, and traumatic events (cf. notes on 37:1). Unlike his earlier visionary journey to Jerusalem, from this journey the prophet does not return (8:1-4; 11:24).

A very high mountain is at variance with the reality of the low temple ridge, from which one looks up to see "mountains" round about (40:2; cf. Ps. 125:2). This is mythic language like navel of the earth (Ezek. 38:12, NRSV note; cf. 17:22; 20:40); it symbolizes the Lord's victorious rule over all earthly powers (cf. Dan. 2:35). Not Baal's Mt. Zaphon (Isa. 14:13) nor Zeus's Mt. Olympus (2 Macc. 6:2) but Yahweh's Mt. Zion is the center to which the nations will stream (Isa. 2:2-4; cf. Ps. 48). The structure like a city to the south likely refers to temple buildings, which Ezekiel sees from a northern position.

Unlike the temple tour of chapters 8-11, where God is Ezekiel's guide, here his guide is a man, though more than a man, with an appearance shining like bronze and marking him as a celestial being (40:3; cf. 1:7; Dan. 10:5-6). Standing in the east gateway, the man has two instruments: a linen cord (not again mentioned) for longer distances, and a measuring reed for shorter dimensions.

Note the four imperatives: look, listen, set your mind, declare (40:4). Since the most-used verb of the account is measured, the first imperative is preeminent: look (40:5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 19, 20, 23, 24, 27, 28, 32, 35, 47, 48; 41:1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 15; 42:15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20; 43:10; 45:3). As for the second imperative, listen, the tour's silence is broken only five later times, always for emphasis: He [the man] said to me (Heb.: waydabber, 40:4; 40:45; 41:22; wayy'omer, 41:4; 42:13; 43:7). The third imperative, set your mind, demands Ezekiel's attention, that he might perform the last imperative, to help the exiled communitythe tour's purpose (cf. measuring to preserve in Zech. 2:1-5; Rev. 11:1; 21:15-17; land and building surveys today). The prophet is God's messenger to declarehere not the Lord's word as was usual, but the Lord's architecture!

Tour of the Temple Courts and Their Gates 40:5-47

40:5-27 The Wall, the Outer Court and Its Gates

The handbreadth (40:5) is the width of four fingers, 2.915 inches. The cubit is six handbreadths (tip of finger to elbow), 17.49 inches.

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Ezekiel's long cubit is seven handbreadths, 20.405 inches (IDB, 1:838). The reed is thus 10.2 feet, the thickness and height of the wall around the temple area.

In the first temple tour, Ezekiel began at the gateway of the inner court that faces north (8:3). In this second tour, after the wall measurement, he begins at the gateway of the outer court, facing east (40:6). He ends this gate-tour where he began the first, at the north gateway of the inner court (40:35-47). The plan and measurements of the six gateways are alike (outer and inner courts: east, 40:6-16, 32-34; north, 40:20-23, 35-37; south, 40:24-31). [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] Except for the wall, only the ground plan of the temple precincts is given; height is unimportant (cf. 40:5). Ezekiel's purpose is not merely to describe the space but to specify who rules it, who has access to it (Stevenson; cf. PREVIEW).

In the description of Solomon's temple, the court gates are omitted (1 Kings 6; for the tabernacle gates, cf. Exod. 27:16; 35:17; 38:15; 39:40). In Ezekiel, these gateways compare to the archaeological remains of those of Solomon's great defense cities, Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer, rather than to those of any known Near Eastern temple (cf. 1 Kings 9:15; IDB Supp.: 362-363; Aharoni: map 112). [Plan of the Temple Gates, p. 387.] Ezekiel transforms these immense gates, lacking the defense towers of the outer entrance, "from a military to a liturgical use" (Klein: 172). For the exiles, the gates perhaps symbolically guard the Lord's holiness; the profane may not encroach upon God's rule.

Ezekiel is brought through the eastern gate into the outer court (40:17). For the possible use of the chambers by other than priests, see Jeremiah 36:10. The pavement of this court is lower than that of the inner court (40:18; cf. 40:34). The distance from the edge of the outer court to the inner court is 170.04 feet (40:19, 23, 27; cf. 40:5).

The outer court gate facing north (40:20-23) and that facing south (40:24-27) are similar to the east gate. Their descriptions designate seven steps leading up from the outside (40:22, 26; cf. 40:6). Note the repetition of the dimensions 25 and multiples, perhaps symbolizing Jubilee for the exiles (40:21, 23, 25, 27; cf. 40:13, 15, 19).

40:28-47 The Inner Court and Its Gates

The tour now examines the gates of the inner court: south (40:28-31), east (40:32-34), and north (40:35-46). The descriptions are similar to those of the outer gates. Again, note the redundancy of

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the number 25 and its multiples, perhaps to stress the symbolism of Jubilee (40:29, 30, 33, 36). Eight steps lead up from the lower pavement of the outer court (40:18, 31, 34, 37).

The first climax of this tour description is evident from the space given to the facilities for sacrifice and its personnel (40:38-47), and by the guide's first break of the tour's silence (40:45-46). The laws of sacrifice are given in Leviticus 1-7. Ezekiel changes these laws somewhat in the segment on "Temple Law" (44:447:12).

The text names three types of offerings prepared here. The burnt offering (Heb.: 'olah, 40:38, 39, 42) is so named because it is entirely consumed upon the altar. Although it has many functions, it especially serves as expiation or atonement (Lev. 1:3-4). The sin offering (40:39, hatta't *) is for purging or "atoning" an unintentional sin or uncleanness (cf. Num. 15:27). The guilt offering (40:39, 'asam*) is a restitution offering for an intentional or unintentional sin. Examples are given in Leviticus 5:146:7 (for the complexity of these offerings, cf. IDB Supp.: 766-769). Eight tables are to be used for the slaughter of the sacrificial animals, and four tables are for the slaughtering instruments (40:41-42). The purpose of the pegs is not specified; presumably they are for hanging meat (40:43).

The segment ends with a description of the facilities for the temple personnel (40:44-47), especially chambers for the singers (Heb. text in 40:44; cf. 1 Chron. 9:33; 15:16; 2 Chron. 29:28). The book of Leviticus with its institutions on sacrifice is only one part of the description of OT worship; the other part is the book of the Psalms and its songs (cf. Ps. 68:24-27). This part of worship is not enlarged upon here. Many translations follow the ancient Greek translation, two chambers (RSV).

The guide breaks the silence for the first time on this temple tour to tell about the use of the two chambers (40:45-46). The priests are divided into two groups, with a chamber for each: those who have general charge of the temple (40:45) and those having charge of the altar (40:46). Although both are the descendants of Levi, only the descendants of Zadok may come near to the Lord to sacrifice (2 Sam. 20:25; 1 Kings 2:35; cf. Ezek. 43:19; 44:10-14). Ezekiel belongs to this group (1:3).

The inner court, a 170.4-foot square, has the altar at its center and the front of the temple as its western edge (40:47). [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] One would expect that the altar, of special interest to Ezekiel the priest, would be further explained here. But the vision tour must hasten toward its goal, the temple with its most holy place

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(41:4). The altar description follows (43:13-27).

Tour of the Temple and West Building 40:4841:26

40:4841:4 Vestibule, Nave, Most Holy Place

The temple has three rooms: the vestibule (Heb.: 'ulam, 40:4849), nave (hekal, 41:1-2), and inner room or most holy place (qodes * haqqadasim*, 41:3-4). [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] The temple tour ascends ever higher to this focal point: from the outside to outer court, seven steps (40:22); from outer to inner court, eight steps (40:31); from inner court to temple, ten steps (40:49)a total of 25 steps up! (cf. notes on 40:1). The focusing continues by increased narrowing: the vestibule gate, fourteen cubits (40:48); the nave entrance, ten cubits (41:2); entrance to the most holy place, six cubits (41:3).

The dimensions of each room are the same as those of Solomon's temple, except for the vestibule (40:49; 1 Kings 6:2-3, 16-17). With his guide, Ezekiel enters each room but the last one (40:48; 41:1, 3). Here he is excluded since he is not a high priest. The guide breaks the silence for the second time on this tour, to name the most holy place (41:4).

41:5-26 Side Chambers, West Building, Paneling, Table

Like Solomon's temple, Ezekiel's visionary temple has side chambers around the temple (41:5; 1 Kings 6:5-6). This structure has three stories, 30 chambers per story. The platform, typical of all Near Eastern temples, is raised above the court (41:8; cf. 40:49). A statement is made of the overall dimensions, given partially in 41:5-12. The temple is one hundred cubits deep; the temple yard to the west along with the west auxiliary building and its walls is one hundred cubits deep (41:13). Also, the width of the temple's east front and the yard is one hundred cubits (41:14). The repeated measurement of the depth of the building facing the yard at the west has its problems and may vary depending on whether galleries are included (41:15, depth, one hundred cubits with galleries; cf. 41:12, depth ninety cubits, width seventy cubits). [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] Again, the number 100, a multiple of 25, is emphasized by these overall dimensions.

Carved upon the walls all around in the inner room (most holy place) and the nave (41:17-20) and upon their doors (41:25; cf. 1 Kings 6:23-36) are cherubim and palm trees. These cherubim are mixed creatures; usually they have the body of a bull, eagle's wings,

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and various types of heads. They are found in the Bible and other ancient Near Eastern literature and artifacts (cf. Gen. 3:24; Ps. 18:10; Rev. 4:6-9; Borowski). The living creatures which Ezekiel saw at his call and first temple tour are cherubim, each with four faces (1:5-25; 10:15). In these temple carvings, they have only two faces, a human face and the face of a young lion, each turned toward a palm tree which is carved on either side (41:18-19). In the ancient ark tradition, the Lord was "enthroned on the cherubim," which guard his throne (1 Sam. 4:4; cf. 1 Kings 6:23-28; Exod. 25:18-21). These celestial figures represent humankind and all beasts, and symbolize omnipotence, omniscience, and a sense of completeness (Borowski; cf. Jensen). The palm tree likely represents the "tree of life" (41:18-20, 25-26; cf. 40:16, 22, 26, 31; Gen. 2:9; Rev. 2:7; 22:2, 14).

For the third time the guide breaks silence: This is the table that stands before the Lord (41:22). The table is also said to resemble an altar (41:21b-22a), perhaps because bread is offered upon it to the Lord (cf. Exod. 25:23-30; 1 Sam. 21:6; Lev. 24:5-9; Mark 2:25-26).

Tour of the Holy Chambers and Outer Wall 42:1-20

The tour continues with an obscure description of two banks of chambers. They are on the north and south sides of the walled-in temple area, connected with the north and south inner gates (42:1-14; cf. 40:6; Klein: 172-174). These chambers serve as a transit zone between the inner and outer courts (Greenberg, 1987:224). The northern chambers are described, with their measurements (42:2, 8), their three stories (42:3, 5-6; cf. 41:6), their outer passages and entrances (42:4, 9-10), and their protective wall (42:7). Note again the repetition of the multiples of 25 (42:2, 4, 7, 8). The southern bank of chambers has a similar pattern and size (42:10-12).

The tour guide breaks silence for the fourth time to describe the function of the buildings (42:13; cf. 40:45-46; 41:4, 23). Both north and south chambers are at the disposal of the priests who minister in the temple, who approach the Lord (42:13; cf. 40:46). There they eat the most holy offerings (cf. 44:28-31; Lev. 10:12-20) and deposit them for storage. For sin and guilt offering, see notes on 40:39. The grain offering (minhah *) is mentioned in Leviticus 2:1-3. When the priests go from inner to outer court, they pause in the chambers to lay aside their holy vestments and don other garments (42:14).

The tour proper ends as it began, with the tour guide measuring the outer wall of the temple area. The purpose of the wall is the pur-

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pose of the chapter: to make a separation between the holy and the common (42:20; cf. "human geography" in PREVIEW). The protecting wall limits access from the outer court to the inner court only to priests (42:7, 12).

Though the entire land is holy, there are degrees of holiness. Even priestly Ezekiel may not enter the most holy place since he is not a high priest (41:3). Priests and no others may enter the inner court, the vestibule, and nave. Only the outer court is open to the people (42:14). Around the temple walls, a holy district separates this holy arena from the rest of the land (45:1-4).

Foreign as this emphasis may be to the twentieth-century mind (cf. Acts 10), it has important political significance with Ezekiel. The very high mountain (40:2) and the Lord's rule in the most holy place is clearly protected from any political pretensions of prince or city (cf. Boadt, 1986:190-192; Stevenson). The Zion tradition is cleanly separated from that of David and Jerusalem. To this temple tradition, city and prince must be subject (cf. Ollenberger; notes on 39:1-6; 48:30-35).

The Glory Enters; God's Throne in the Temple 43:1-12

The guide has led Ezekiel out of the gate facing east to measure the temple area and wall (42:15). Now the guide brings Ezekiel back to the gate where the tour began (cf. 40:6), there to experience a vision within this larger temple vision (43:3).

Ezekiel connects this vision with two previous visions (43:1-3): the one by the river Chebar, his call (cf. chaps. 1-3); and the one when God came to destroy the city (cf. chaps. 8-11). All three visions are dominated by the glory of the Lord (43:4-5; cf. 43:2; 1:28; 3:12; 8:4, 10:4-19; 11:22-23). Ezekiel's second and third experience of the Glory happened when he was brought, in visions of God, to the land of Israel (40:2; 8:3-4). His first experience of the Glory happened in Babylon, among the exiles (1:1-3, 28). These experiences sum up the major movement of the book. The second and third form a trajectory: the Glory's rejection of the temple, explaining the judgments (chaps. 4-33); then the Glory's return to fill the new visionary temple (43:5), after Israel's renewal and the Lord's destruction of Gog (chaps. 34-39). The first experience assured Ezekiel of the divine presence in his land of exile, just as the Glory was with Moses in the wilderness. [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.] Ezekiel's response: I fell upon my face (43:3; 1:28).

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As in 11:1, the spirit now acts as tour guide to bring Ezekiel into the inner court (43:5), where his other guide has not taken him (41:3). Here the silence of the tour is broken for the fifth and final time, not by the tour guide, but by someone speaking . . . out of the temple (43:6). This speech is the high point of the tour.

Here is the Lord's throne (43:7), and the Lord will be King over Israel (cf. 1:26; 10:1; 20:33; 34:11-16). A footstool (place for the soles of feet) may have been a part of the throne-chair itself (cf. 2 Chron. 9:18). The ark, Zion, the sanctuary, and the earth are all used metaphorically as God's footstool (1 Chron. 28:2; Lam. 2:1; Isa. 60:13; Isa. 66:1).

While all the princes of the sea shall step down from their thrones (Ezek. 26:16), the Lord as ruler will reside among the people of Israel forever (43:7). The Lord does not simply dwell in the temple; ruling from the temple, God resides among the people. This Ruler has been driven from the holy mount (chaps. 8-11), not by the power of Israel's enemies, but by the immorality of the house of Israel, which was defiling the holy name.

Israel's kings are included in this whoring, a metaphor of unfaithfulness (43:7). This metaphor is used of Jerusalem's worship of power gods (chap. 16), and of Israel and Judah's military alliances with foreign powers (chap. 23). The Lord objects to three things: Israel's idolatry, the corpses of kings buried near the temple (43:9), and the temple being cheek in jowl with the palace (43:8; cf. 1 Kings 6-7). This was an intolerable invasion of the Lord's space, where God alone rules over Israel (PREVIEW). Like his brother Israelites, the king was to be subject to God's law (cf. Deut. 17:14-20; 1 Sam. 10:25).

The Lord's speech ends with a reinforced commission to the prophet: Describe the temple to the house of Israel (43:10; cf. 40:4). Throughout the tour, the guide measures; now the exiles are to measure. What they are to measure is the proportion (Heb.: toknit) the temple's relationships and degrees of access (Stevenson). Unfortunately, this word is usually changed by translators to pattern (tabnit; cf. Exod. 25:9), stressing measurements.

This despondent people is to become involved in the prophetic message. The purpose of this is to cause the exiles to be ashamed of their iniquities, their violations of access, especially of the throne room. The four references to shame in this book are in the context of Israel's salvation. Shame is intended to lead to repentance (16:54, 61; 36:32; 43:10; Zimmerli, 1983:418).

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Verse 11 is an enlargement of the prophet's commission in verse 10a and is to follow the realization of Israel's shame. In the Hebrew construction, make known to them and write it down in their sight are joined together. He is both to tell and to draw out the plan (upon the sand?). Three things are designated: the temple's plan and arrangements, its exits and entrances, its ordinances and laws (43:11; cf. 43:6-9; 44:5).

The word law (torah, 43:12) may be translated charter (JB). The Lord's speech closes as the vision began: all these realistic measurements are on the top of the mountain (cf. 40:2) which is still large enough to have a whole territory . . . all around! All of this is most holy and is not to be encroached upon.

Cleansing: The Altar and Closed Gate 43:1344:3

While the Presence in the most holy place is the focus of the tour, the people's connection with the place of God's throne (43:7) is via the ministrations at the altar. The cleansing at the altar is necessary to remove the defilement caused by Israel's encroachment upon the throne room (cf. 43:7-9). Only by this cleansing can Israel be acceptable to the Lord within the land (43:27; cf. PREVIEW). The segment ends with the statement of the closed gate (44:1-3). The Lord's entrance to the temple as Ruler is never again to be confused with the entrance of the people and prince, who enter only as the Lord's subjects.

Ezekiel's long cubit is 20.405 inches; the span is half a cubit, 10.202 inches (43:13; cf. 40:5). Although the temple measurements include only the ground plan, here the altar's height is given.

The structure of the altar as described here (43:13-17) is disputed. Some interpreters regard it as set within a depression one cubit deep and eighteen cubits square (43:13). Others regard it as set upon a slab of these dimensions (cf. Zimmerli, 1983:425-427). If the latter is correct, then the altar rises from this platform two cubits to the lower ledge (also called smaller ledge, 43:14!), a ledge all around of one cubit wide. From this, the altar rises another four cubits to another ledge of the same width. From this, the altar rises again four cubits to the altar hearth or top surface, which forms a square of twelve cubits (43:15-16). [Altar of Sacrifice, p. 388.] If this is correct, the altar forms a Mesopotamian steplike structure (ziggurat) with an eighteen-cubit square base, rising to successive squares of sixteen and fourteen cubits, topped with a twelve-cubit square. For the altar's horns and their use, compare Exodus 29:12; 1 Kings 1:50-53.

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The steps, prohibited in Exodus 20:26, shall face east (43:17). [Altar of Sacrifice, p. 388.] Thus the priest on the steps faces west, the opposite direction from that of other Near Eastern worship (cf. note on 8:16). The ministry at the altar and the prayers of the people are directed toward God's throne rather than toward the sun (43:7).

The consecration of the altar is to be a ceremony lasting seven days (43:18, 22, 26). This ceremony of atonement (43:20, 26) is necessary for the altar and worship area, as well as for the priesthood and people (cf. Exod. 29:36-37; Lev. 16:15-19). For the various consecration offerings (burnt offerings, 43:18, 24; sin offering, 43:19, 21, 25) and family of Zadok (43:19), see notes on 40:38-46. The bull of the sin offering must be burned outside the sacred area (43:21; cf. Lev. 8:17). Salt accompanied every sacrifice (43:24). Called ''salt of the covenant," it was thought to make permanent a friendly relationship (Lev. 2:13; Ezra 4:14; cf. IDB, 4:167).

On the eighth day, the first day after the consecration, the regular sacrifices are to begin (43:27). Much of the offerings of well-being or peace offerings (KJV) are eaten in the presence of the Lord by worshiper and friends (Lev. 3; 7:11-18, 28-36). These sacrifices denote communion between God (represented by the altar), the priest, and worshipers. The objective of these actions is stated in the final words of the Lord's speech: I will accept you (cf. Ezek. 20:41; Lev. 22:29; Ps. 51:15-17; 119:108). Obtaining acceptance by God is the central purpose of the altar.

From the inner court of the temple (cf. 43:5), the guide brings Ezekiel to the outer gate facing east; and it was shut (44:1). It is to remain shut (44:2) because the Lord, the God of Israel, has entered by it (cf. 46:1, eastern gate of inner court opened on Sabbath and new moon). The Glory's entry is to be a once-for-all, final event; it is not to be commemorated by processionals (cf. Ps. 24). Even today the east gate of the present wall about the ancient temple precincts is blocked shut. The shut gate is a fitting reminder that the Lord's rule is not to be violated or confused with human government.

The Text in Biblical Context

Three Architectural Visions

There are three great architectural visions in the Bible: Moses' vision of the pattern (Exod. 25:9, tabnit) of the tabernacle, Ezekiel's vision of the proportion (Ezek. 43:10, toknit) of the temple, and John's vision of the dimensions of the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21:9-27). These

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three visions are related to each other. According to their respective traditions, they all take place on a literal or visionary mountain (Exod. 24:15-18; Heb. 8:5; Ezek. 40:2; Rev. 21:10). In their present literary contexts, they all relate to the motif of holy war.

Although each architectural vision answers to a need of its historical community, the purpose of the visions becomes more and more symbolic. The expressed purpose of the vision to Moses is to build a tabernacle according to the divine specifications: "in accordance with all that I show you concerning the pattern of the tabernacle and of all its furniture, so you shall make it" (Exod. 25:9). The vision is followed by the story of building the tabernacle (Exod. 35:3040:33). This vision and story close the book of Exodus, whose beginning segment narrates how the Lord alone did battle with Pharaoh to liberate Israel from Egypt (chaps. 1-15).

The purpose of Ezekiel's vision is that the exiles might measure the proportion and observe and follow the entire plan and all its ordinances (43:10-11). By this, rebellious Israel will repent: Let them be ashamed of their iniquities in violating the Lord's rule which the temple signifies (43:10; cf. 43:7-9). Though some interpreters think Ezekiel intended that the temple be built according to these specifications, there is no hint in the vision that this is so. Speaking against this are the visionary high mountain, the symbolic measurements suggesting Jubilee (though denied by some, such as Vogt: 140), and the symbolic restructuring of the land's geography (chaps. 47-48). Ezekiel's chief concern is not for a new geography of real estate but for a new human geographythe Lord's rule, and the governance of Israel within the land (Stevenson). This vision is understood within the flow of Israel's hymnody: God's victory (chaps. 38-39), followed by the final establishment of God's government in the land ("An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17).

The third architectural vision of the Bible is highly symbolic, though anchored deeply in the need of historic churches (Rev. 2-3). Though the structure of the book of Revelation is provided by that of holy war (cf. Giblin), yet it is the crucified Lamb's war, represented by holy martyrs. The enemy is the symbolic Babylon, representing historic Rome, an empire comparable to that of the Pharaoh, or of the symbolic Gog of Ezekiel. John's angelic guide measures the city of Jerusalem, in which there is no temple at all (21:9-27). And the city itself is "coming down out of heaven," symbolic of the martyred church, the Lamb's bride.

Although these visions move from historical realism to a highly

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symbolic account, they are held together by the holy war motif. The biblical center of holy war is set forth by the oldest traditions of Israel's beginnings: "The Lord will fight for you, and you have only to keep still" (Exod. 14:14). This biblical holy war does not demand militaristic visionaries and patrons of temples, such as Mesopotamian kings Gudea, Hammurabi, and Sennacherib (ANET: 268-271, 163-164; Luckenbill: 135-143). Instead, the Lord's war calls prophetic leaders like Moses, Ezekiel, and John, who declare God's word both to the Lord's people and to empire. All three architectural visions emphasize a peaceable kingdom, ruled not by the sword of the state but by worshipful response to the word of God.

The Text in the Life of the Church

The Millennium in the Hope of the Church

Teaching about the millennium, a thousand-year reign of Christ on earth with his martyred saints, occurs once in the Bible (Rev. 20:1-10). Throughout much of the history of the oppressed church, its hope is sustained by a vision of this millennium. The term is broadened, however, to denote not only a thousand-year reign but also any time when, beyond suffering, the church will experience the rule of God upon the earth.

This hope sustained many in the church from the second to the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. The hope dried up with Augustine, when the church moved from being an oppressed society to being an oppressor.

Although in early church history the vision had a nonviolent tradition, in the Middle Ages there developed a violent tradition, evident in the crusades (cf. Desroche: 96-97). The crusaders were motivated by belief in the antichrist, identified with Muslims or Jews. They believed that after the conquest, the saints would dwell in Jerusalem.

The violent tradition developed also in the time of the Reformation, especially among some Anabaptists. The most famous example occurred at the city of Münster, regarded as the New Jerusalem. Christ was about to return; in the meantime, he had already established his kingdom in Münster, having placed over it "the new David, Jan Bockelson," also called Jan van Leyden (Cohn: 274).

The OT prophecies were already fulfilled in this kingdom. From this kingdom, "God's people must go forth, wielding the Sword of Justice, to enlarge the kingdom until it should include the whole world: 'One sheep-fold, one flock, one King'" (Cohn: 274). After

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Jan's defeat by Catholic and Protestant forces, Menno Simons labored long to pick up the pieces, to form a community uniting peace and justice with worship.

In this millennial vision which continues to our day, most of Ezekiel's temple vision, mediated through the book of Revelation, has not figured as an important element. But even though the book of Revelation has no temple, its community is structured by the worship of God and the Lamb. History has shown that this vision, not easily achieved, must be tempered for this life by the realism of our own humanity. But it must not be lost through disillusionment. For "where there is no vision, the people perish" (Prov. 29:18, KJV; see "Star Wars and Millennial Preachers" in TLC for chaps. 38-39.)

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Temple Law and the River of Life:

Ezekiel 44:447:12

Preview

At the beginning of this vision, Ezekiel has set the stage for a new human geography for Israel (cf. Stevenson). He has described the temple to which the Lord has returned, and the altar by which the encroachment of king and people upon the Lord's space will be cleansed (PREVIEW OF 40:144:3).

Now Ezekiel describes how the Lord's rule is to be mediated to the people through the temple leadership (44:4-31). He explains how Israel is to respond as the Lord's steward by setting aside a holy portion as well as an area for the city and prince (45:1-9). The prophet tells how people and prince as stewards are to offer back to the Lord sacrifices in yearly, monthly, weekly and daily festivals (45:1046:15). There are to be certain laws and provisions for prince, priests, and people (46:16-24). The previous segment ended with the altar by which the temple is to be cleansed. Similarly, this segment ends with the river which flows out from the temple to cleanse, water, and heal the land (47:1-12; cf. 44:13-27).

Stevenson calls this vision a "social manifesto" for a future society, one organized around a visionary temple without a human king. It is important to understand its details but not to get bogged down in them. The early church further spiritualized the temple, its priesthood, and sacrifices. But the rule of God and the cleansing of the altar were real to them, as was the river flowing from a worshiping people to give life to the land.

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Outline

God's Rule Mediated Through Temple Leadership, 44:4-31

44:4-14

Non-Zadokite Levites, Ministers in the Sanctuary

44:15-27

Zadokite Priests, Ministers at the Altar

44:28-31

Provision for the Priests

Israel as Steward: Holy Portion, City Area, Prince, 45:1-9

Israel as Steward: Offering of Sacrifices, 45:1046:15

45:10-17

Just Measures for Communal Sacrifices

45:18-25

Offerings for Specific Festivals

46:1-10

Entrance Laws: Sabbatical, New Moon Sacrifices

46:11-15

Entrance Laws: Festival, Freewill, Daily Offerings

Laws and Provisions for Prince, Priests, People, 46:16-24

46:16-18

Laws for Princely Inheritance

46:19-24

Kitchens for Priests and People

Healing Waters Flowing from the Temple, 47:1-12

Explanatory Notes

God's Rule Mediated Through Temple Leadership 44:4-31

In Ezekiel's vision, God rules from the temple. Yet this rule must be mediated to the people through human leadership. It is striking that in this vision, there is no place for a palace.

44:4-14 Non-Zadokite Levites, Ministers in the Sanctuary

Although the architectural tour with its emphasis on temple dimensions has ended, the guide continues to lead Ezekiel (44:4; cf. 46:19; 47:1, 6). Since the east gate is closed (44:1-2), they enter by the north gate to the altar precincts, to the front of the temple (44:4). [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] For the last time in his book, Ezekiel beholds the Glory and falls upon his face (44:4; cf. 1:28; 3:23; 43:3). [Glory of the Lord, p. 378.]

At the beginning of the vision, Ezekiel was addressed by the guide; here similarly the Lord addresses him: Mortal (Son of man, NIV), mark well, look closely, and listen attentively (44:5; cf. 40:4). Earlier, the emphasis was upon what the guide will show Ezekiel (the

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temple proportions); here, it is upon what the Lord will tell him (the temple ordinances and laws). In the Pentateuch, law was mediated by Moses (Exod. 20:22; Lev. 17:1-2; Deut. 5:1; 27:1; but cf. Exod. 20:1, 18-21). Ezekiel becomes a new Moses, a second lawgiver, changing some of the ancient laws (44:5b46:24).

The three imperatives (mark, look, listen) are first applied to temple entrance laws: who are to be admitted and who excluded (44:5). Foreigners (Heb.: nekar, used only once in this book) are to be excluded from the Lord's sanctuary (44:7-8). Ezekiel usually is positive toward foreigners, especially to those living in Israel (Heb.: ger, aliens, 14:7; 22:7, 29; 47:22-23). Hence, some assume that this law is authored by a later disciple. Yet what is being dealt with here is not the temple worshiper (cf. 1 Kings 8:41-43; Deut. 31:12) but the temple ministry. Perhaps these foreigners are thought to be descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh. 9:3-27; cf. Deut. 29:11) or of those more recently enlisted in temple ministry by an assimilating king like Manasseh (2 Kings 21). Ezekiel's purpose is to protect the purity of the faith tradition, as the emphasis on uncircumcised in heart and broken . . . covenant indicate (cf. Deut. 17:15).

Instead of the foreigner, the Levites are to be ministers in the sanctuary (44:10-11). The Hebrew word translated minister usually means special service in worship. Only Ezekiel speaks of the apostasy of the Levites. They are to be penalized and kept as lower clergy because they cooperated as faithless priests when Israel went astray in idolatry (cf. 44:10-15; 48:11).

The task of the Levites is to have charge of the gates of the temple (cf. Ps. 15), to prepare the burnt offering and the sacrifice (44:11; cf. notes on 42:13), and generally to keep charge of the temple, doing all its chores (44:14). They are specifically prohibited from making sacrifices, from serving God as priest at the altar (44:13). Only exilic and postexilic texts clearly distinguish between the ministry of priests and the ministry of Levites.

44:15-27 Zadokite Priests, Ministers at the Altar

The priests are also regarded as Levites, but of the family of Zadok, one of two special priests of David, perhaps from Hebron (44:15; 2 Sam. 15:24-29; 19:11; cf. 1 Kings 1; 2:35). Descendants of this family are rewarded because, unlike the rest of the Levites, they kept charge of the Lord's sanctuary when Israel worshiped idols (44:15; cf. 44:10). Their tasks are to offer sacrifices at the altar, place

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bread on the table within the nave (44:16; cf. 41:21-22; Lev. 24:5-9). Fat and blood are not to be eaten by the priests, but are to be offered entirely to God (44:15; cf. Lev. 3:16-17; 17:10-12).

Linen vestments, turbans, and undergarments (44:17-18) are mentioned in Exodus 28:2; 39:28. Only Ezekiel explains why wool is not to be usedbecause it causes sweat. Although for Ezekiel all Israel is holy (20:12; 37:28), he also believes that there are degrees of holiness. Holiness, while beneficial, is also threatening and must be communicated to the people with care (44:19; cf. 42:14; 46:20; Exod. 19:21-25).

Ezekiel affirms Levitical laws against shaving heads, having long locks (44:20), drinking wine in the inner court (44:21), marrying a widow or divorced woman (44:22), contamination from approaching a dead person (44:25; cf. Lev. 21:1-15; 10:9). Though a priest, Ezekiel has been commanded to violate these laws by shaving head and beard to pantomime the destruction of Jerusalem (5:1-4).

Besides sacrificing, the priests' duties are to teach the people the difference between the holy and the common (44:23; cf. 22:26; Lev. 10:10); to act as judges in a controversy (44:24; Deut. 17:8-13); to keep the laws and statutes of the festivals and sabbaths (44:24; cf. 45:18-25). Relating to their work as judges, the priests are to teach the law (Deut. 33:10; Hos. 4:6; Jer. 2:8; Mic. 3:11; Mal. 2:6-7; cf. Exod. 18:20).

44:28-31 Provisions for the Priests

The principle for priestly provision is stated in 44:28: I am their inheritance/holding. Joshua 14:119:51 tells how the land west of the Jordan was distributed to families of various Israelite tribes. In this apportionment, the tribe of Levi was omitted: "The Levites have no portion among you, for the priesthood of the Lord is their heritage" (Josh. 18:7; cf. 14:3-4; Deut. 10:9; 18:2). Because of possible conflict of interest with their worship and teaching function, their power was limited by prohibiting to them landed property (cf. Gottwald: 320).

What the above texts give as the inheritance of all Levites, Ezekiel limits to the priesthood (44:28). Because a growing distinction was made between priests and Levites after the exile, some see this text as the work of a disciple.

Details of the priests' inheritance are given in 44:29-30. For sin and guilt offering (44:29), see notes on 40:39. The grain offering might be parched coarse grain (Lev. 2:14-16), fine flour (2:1), unleav-

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ened cakes (2:4), loaves of leavened bread (23:17), or barley flour (Num. 5:15). The devoted thing is a gift to the sanctuary under special conditions (Lev. 27:21; Num. 18:14; Mark 7:11). The first of all the first fruits may refer to the tithe of the tithe which the Levites are to make to the priests (44:30; cf. Num. 18:25-30). A loaf from the first "batch of dough" is required of the Israelite in Numbers 15:21.

Any flesh torn by animals or from a natural death is prohibited not only to priests (44:31) but to all Israelites (Lev. 7:24-25). As a priest, Ezekiel emphasizes this as especially abhorrent when protesting to God against a command to eat unclean food (4:14; cf. Lev. 22:8).

Israel as Steward: Holy Portion, City Area, Prince 45:1-9

As a steward, Israel is to acknowledge God's ownership of the land in its distribution. The distribution prescribed here anticipates the allotment made to the twelve tribes and is lifted from that passage (48:1-29, esp. 8-22). Description of the territories for temple, priests, Levites, and prince may seem misplaced in the midst of laws for temple administration. Yet its purpose here is to guard against the injustices of past history, especially the encroachment of the prince (cf. 45:8-9). The segment begins with allotment and ends with an injunction to the princes to respect the allotment.

To set aside . . . a portion is an expression often used of offerings; the KJV translates, Ye shall offer an oblation unto the Lord (45:1; cf. 44:30). This oblation is a holy district, 25,000 x 20,000 cubits, which in turn is divided into two equal section(s) of 10,000 cubits wide (45:3), one for the priests (45:4), the other for the Levites (44:5). The priestly portion has an additional fifty cubits . . . around the square to safeguard its holiness (45:2). This portion is for the houses of those who minister at the altar (45:4; cf. 44:15-16). It includes a square plot of five hundred . . . cubits for the location of the sanctuary (45:2; cf. 45:3-4). [Ezekiel's Division of the Land, p. 389.] This priestly portion is designated as holy (qodes *), a term used to designate the sanctuary (45:2), occurring in the segment eight times (45:1bc, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7ab). The Holy, rather than prince or city, is to determine and protect land tenure (cf. 1 Kings 21, esp. 21:19, "Thus says the Lord"). "Henceforth Israel is to be not a nation-state in the usual sense of that term, but a temple-community" (Blenkinsopp: 223).

Alongside (south) of the holy district is an area designated for the city (Ezek. 45:6), not "David's royal city" but a city belonging to the whole house of Israel. The temple, the place of God's throne (43:7), is

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thus set apart from the city. Holiness in Israel is not to be concentrated in the political power center but is to be apart from it. By this holiness political power must be structured, and to this holiness it must be subject.

Land for the prince is designated on the west and east sides of the holy district and holding of the city, along the Mediterranean Sea and Jordan River (45:7). [Ezekiel's Division of the Land, p. 389.] The term holding is used of the Levitical, city, and princely areas (45:5-7) but never of the priestly area; such holdings are expressly forbidden to priests in 44:28.

The segment ends with the punch line (45:8b-9), which is not included in the longer segment (48:8-22). Notice the possessive pronoun, my princes, my people. Both belong to and are ruled by the Lord. The princes shall not violate this rule but shall let Israel have the land according to their tribes. Land tenure is to be controlled by tribal structure and worship center rather than by kingship and city.

This point is emphasized by a messenger formula at the beginning of 45:9 and an oracle formula at the end. The princes are to put away violence and oppression; they are to do what is just and right. The more specific command, Cease your evictions of my people, may provide a clue as to why this segment is lifted out of the land allotment section and inserted here. Princes are not to be anarchists but are to submit to the holy structure of God's government (cf. 46:1618; 1 Kings 21). [Economic Justice, p. 377.]

Critical scholars generally hold that this invective is the work of Ezekiel's disciple, perhaps about the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. 5:15-18). But Ezekiel while visionary is also a realist, sharply exposing violence, especially that of princes (7:10-11, 22; 8:16-17; 12:19; 19:3-7; 28:16; cf. 1 Sam. 8:10-18). A new heart and spirit does not make people into robots, even in the end time. Ezekiel still needs to exhort and appeal to the will (cf. 43:9).

Israel as Steward: Offering of Sacrifices 45:1046:15

45:10-17 Just Measures for Communal Sacrifices

Israel is to respond to God's kingship also by offering animal and vegetable sacrifices. The ancient Hebrew Bible regards 45:9-17 as one segment. If so, then the first address, you (pl., 45:10), likely refers to the princes. To do what is just and right (45:9) is first applied to honest weights (balances) and measures (ephah and bath; 45:10).

Just weights and measures is a concern of law (Lev. 19:35-36),

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wisdom (Prov. 16:11), and prophet. In the law text, it is connected with freedom from oppression (Lev. 19:36). The inaccurate balance is condemned by proverb (Prov. 11:1; 20:23) and prophet (Hos. 12:7; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11).

The ancient balances was a crossbeam with two pans suspended on strings fastened to both its ends (45:10). The weights were the shekel (0.403 ounce, 45:12), the gerah (0.05 shekel), and the mina (50 shekels). Ezekiel uses the Babylonian rather than the Palestinian system, where the mina was 60 shekels (IDB, 4:832-833; cf. Dan. 5:24-28; Lederach: 118-119). Three shekel weightsthe twenty, twenty-five, and fifteenbalanced out one mina. Weights and measures differed in various areas (cf. Canadian and U.S. gallons). Since archaeologists have recovered only a few marked weights, their equivalent values can only be estimates. The ephah was a dry measure (0.5 bushel, 45:10-11, 13), the bath a liquid measure (5.5 gal., 45:10-11, 14). The dry homer (about 6.5 bushels, 45:11, 13-14) was the same measure as the liquid homer (35-60 gal., 45:11), used for wet and dry, as is our liter (IDB, 4:835; Harper's: 1130).

Just as the biblical law codes were propagated in the worship setting, so weights and balances were standardized there. The statement on standards introduces the instructions for the regular communal sacrifice (45:13-17). The you (pl., 45:13) addresses all the people of the land . . . with the prince (45:16).

See earlier notes on grain offerings (45:15, 17; cf. 44:29) of wheat and barley (45:13), burnt offerings and sin offerings (45:15, 17; cf. 40:38-39), and offerings of well-being (peace offerings, 45:17, KJV; cf. 43:27). The drink offering was a liquid such as wine poured out in honor of the deity (Gen. 35:14). It is listed with other offerings (Lev. 23:37) and was often made in connection with them (Num. 4:7; Lev. 23:13, 18). For the use of olive oil (45:14) in worship, see Leviticus 8:2, 10, 12.

The obligation of the prince at all the festivals is to provide Israel with these sacrifices (45:17). The three ancient yearly festivals are the Passover (and Unleavened Bread), Weeks (Pentecost), and Booths (Tabernacles; Deut. 16:1-17; cf. Ezek. 45:21-25). The new moon is celebrated on the first of the month and is similar to Sabbath observance (cf. 45:18-19; Num. 28:11-15). For sabbath observance, compare Ezekiel 46:4-8 and Numbers 28:9.

The purpose of these offerings is stated twice: to make atonement for the house of Israel (45:15, 17; cf. 45:20). In Hebrew poetry, the verb ''to make atonement" has several parallels: "blot out" (Jer.

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18:23), "remove" (Isa. 27:9), "cleanse" (Lev. 14:52-53). In ritual acts such as stated in this text, it removes the contamination of physical impurities (Lev. 14:1-9) or of unintentional sin (Lev. 4; cf. IDB Supp.: 78). In nonritual texts it often has the meaning "to forgive sin" (Jer. 18:23; Ezek. 16:63; Ps. 78:38). In the NT, atonement and reconciliation are associated with the death of Jesus (Mark 10:45; Rom. 5:8).

45:18-25 Offerings for Specific Festivals

What is stated generally as the prince's duties in 45:17, now is discussed specifically: the first new moon of the year (45:18-20), the festivals of Passover (45:21-24) and Booths (45:25), the Sabbath and new moon celebrations (46:1-10), and daily sacrifices (46:13-15).

The purpose of the first yearly ceremony is to make atonement for the temple (45:20; cf. Lev. 16:16-17). This ceremony and that of Passover which follows are much like that of the atonement for the altar (see notes on 43:18-27). There are some unique characteristics.

The temple and altar are to be atoned for once a year (Lev. 16:33; cf. Exod. 30:10). The first month (45:18), in the spring, is obviously the Babylonian new year (cf. notes on 40:1). Placing blood . . . on the doorposts of the temple reminds one of the Passover ceremony (45:19; Exod. 12:7). In later times the term Passover (45:21) was also used of ceremonial days which preceded it. The emphasis of the text is on atonement, so the sin offering is emphasized throughout (45:19, 22, 25; cf. 45:17). In the time of the exile, this need for expiation was especially felt because of the burden of Israel's guilt. That guilt is emphasized even in this temple rule, after Israel has been given a new heart and spirit! (11:19; 36:26).

Passover begins on the fourteenth day (45:21; fifteenth day? cf. Exod. 12:6) of the first month, Abib (lunar calendar, usually our April). See the main biblical texts describing its observance (Exod. 12:113:16; 23:15; 34:18-20, 25; Lev. 23:4-14; Num. 28:16-25; Deut. 16:1-8). The sacrifice demanded of the prince by Ezekiel far exceeds what is asked for in Numbers 28. Such changes of the law are one reason the rabbis hesitated to admit Ezekiel into the canon. A hin of oil is one gallon (45:24; IDB, 4:835). In the NT the death of Jesus occurred during this festival, and the meaning of his death is associated with it (on atonement, cf. 45:15, 19-20). After the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70, the festival became a family celebration.

The festival of the seventh month, the fifteenth day (45:25), unnamed here, is called "the festival" (Lev. 23:39), "the festival of in-

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gathering" (Exod. 23:16; 34:22), "the festival of booths" (Deut. 16:13; Lev. 23:34; cf. John 7). It is peculiar that this Ezekiel text does not include the festival of Weeks or Pentecost.

46:1-10 Entrance Laws: Sabbatical, New Moon Sacrifices

This segment begins with the messenger formula, Thus says the Lord (46:1; cf. 45:9, 18; 46:16). It deals with entrance (46:1-3, 8-9) and sacrifice regulations (46:4-7) for sabbath and new moon (46:1, 3, 6).

While the east gate to the outer court is to be shut continuously (44:1-3), the east gate to the inner court is to be closed on the six working days. It is to be open only on days of sabbath and new moon (46:1) for limited access by both prince (46:2) and the worshiping community (46:3). The daily round of economic activity finds its meaning and direction in weekly and monthly access to communal worship.

The prince enters the gate from outside (the outer court, 46:2), taking his stand at the post of the east inner gate, the point where the gateway opens into the inner court. [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] There he is to bow down as the priests offer his burnt offering and offerings of well-being (cf. 43:18, 27). He has access only to see what is being done. The people, on the other hand, have access only to the entrance of that gate (46:3). If they are at the bottom of the eight steps (40:34), they are unable to see what goes on at the altar. If they are at the top, they may be able to catch glimpses of the altar through the 50-cubit gateway (85 feet, 40:15, 32). [Plan of the Temple Gates, p. 387.] The text, nevertheless, regards them as before the Lord since they are before the altar (cf. Deut. 26:4-5).

Although Ezekiel's limitation of access is extreme (the tabernacle had only one court, Exod. 27:9-19), these limitations are ancient (Exod. 24:1-2) and are reflected even in the NT (Mark 14:32-35). The book of Hebrews, however, frees the worshiper "to enter the sanctuary by the blood of Jesus, by the new and living way that he opened for us through the curtain (that is, through his flesh)" (Heb. 10:19-25). Entrance is limited only by disobedience (10:25-31).

The sabbath day sacrifice consists of burnt offering and grain offering, and again it is in excess of the requirements of Numbers 28:915 (Ezek. 46:4-5). Ezekiel is a new Moses, a second lawgiver, inaugurating a new era (cf. 44:5). For the grain offering, see 44:29. The ephah is a half bushel; the hin, one gallon (cf. 45:10-12).

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The offerings of the new moon again differ from the demands of Numbers 28:11-28 (in lunar calendar, new moon begins each month; Ezek. 46:6-7). Compare this celebration in history and prophecy (1 Sam. 20:5; 2 Kings 4:23; Isa. 1:13-14; Hos. 2:11; Amos 8:5). In both sabbath and new moon offerings, the amount of grain offered with the lambs is to be determined by the prince (Ezek. 46:5, 7). He is to enter and leave the court by the same way (46:8). The people (46:9), on the other hand, are to go straight ahead across the outer court, but not cutting through the inner court; if they enter by the north gate, they leave by the south gate, and vice versa, presumably stopping at the inner east gate to worship. The prince (46:10), leader of the procession, is to express solidarity with the people by entering and exiting with them (cf. Ps. 68:24-27).

46:11-15 Entrance Laws: Festival, Freewill, Daily Offerings

Verse 11 repeats the prescription of 46:7. The freewill offering is voluntary and does not need to be a perfect animal (46:12; cf. Lev. 22:23). Much of the offerings of well-being are to be eaten, a joyous occasion (Deut. 12:17-18; 16:10). At such feasts, as on new moon and sabbath, the inner gate facing east is to be opened for the prince (cf. Ezek. 46:1).

Each morning the prince is to provide for a burnt offering (totally consumed on the altar, 46:13) and a grain offering mixed with oil (46:14). Exodus 29:38-42 and Numbers 28:1-8 prescribe morning and evening (3:00 p.m.) sacrifices with different regulations (cf. 1 Kings 18:29; 2 Kings 16:15; Acts 3:1).

Laws and Provisions for Prince, Priests, People 46:16-24

46:16-18 Laws for Princely Inheritance

Land ownership in Israel was not to be decided by the free market. Distributed to the families of the various tribes (Josh. 13:1-33; esp. 13:7, 15, 23-24, 28-29), land was not to be sold but only to be leased to the year of liberty (deror, Ezek. 46:17), later called "Jubilee." The law of Jubilee is explained only in Leviticus 25 and 27:1724, though the practice is mentioned here and elsewhere (Num. 36:4; 2 Chron. 36:21; Isa. 61:1-2; Jer. 34:8-17; Luke 4:18-19). The law was practical so long as Israel submitted its economics to God's rule.

With Israel's adoption of kingship, the law of land tenure was

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threatened (1 Sam. 8:14; 1 Kings 21; cf. 1 Sam. 22:7; Isa. 5:8). To protect this law, Ezekiel makes a special allotment for the prince (45:7-9; 48:21-22), and insists that royal land grants be made from this. Even such grants are to be a lease only until Jubilee (46:17); like tribal allotments, land may not be alienated from the royal family.

The concern of this text is to protect the inheritance of the people (46:18), described above. Violence is here depicted, using the same Hebrew verb as in 45:8 (NRSV: oppress). The prince shall not be thrusting them out of their holding. My people is paralleled in 45:8-9.

46:19-24 Kitchens for Priests and People

This text reintroduces us suddenly to the guide: Then he brought me (46:19). That guidance now continues through 47:12 (46:21; 47:1, 2, 6). The guide was left standing in front of the temple (44:4) while the Lord gave temple laws to Ezekiel (44:5, 9, 12, 15, 27; 45:9, 15, 18; 46:1, 16). Now again, the guide speaks (46:20, 24; 47:6, 8).

Ezekiel is first led to the kitchens in the inner court: at the extreme western end of the north row of the holy chambers for the priests (46:19; cf. 42:1-10). [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] There the priests are to prepare the various offerings they are permitted to eat (cf. Lev. 2:3, 10; 6:14-18, 24-30; 7:1-9; 10:16-20). Ezekiel's concern is that the priests' food not be prepared in the outer court where its holiness might have disastrous effects upon the people (cf. 2 Sam. 6:6-11).

The kitchens (46:24) in the four corners of the outer court (46:21) are where the Levites (those who serve at the temple, cf. 44:10-11) prepare the sacrificial food for the people. [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.] These require much more equipment than do the priestly kitchens, because of the hugeness of the task (46:23).

Healing Waters Flowing from the Temple 47:1-12

This vision begins by noting that the temple tour continues: Then he brought me back to the entrance of the temple (47:1; cf. 47:2, 3, 4, 6, 7). Only four words in Hebrew, they connect this experience of healing waters with the more mundane inspection of communal kitchens (46:19, 21). Indeed, 46:1947:12 ends the tour. This end paired with the tour's beginning (40:144:4; cf. 40:3, 4, 17, 20, 28, 32, 35, 48, etc.) forms an envelope around the middle, 44:546:18, where the Lord speaks to Ezekiel (cf. 44:5, 9, 27; 45:9, 18; 46:1, 16). Then in the conclusion (47:1348:35), the Lord and the prophet are

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speaking (says the Lord, 47:13, 23; 48:1-35, esp. 48:29).

Ezekiel is brought back from the communal kitchens of the outer court (46:21-24), up the two stairways to the inner court and front (east) of the temple (47:1; cf. 44:4). There he sees water going down (the stairway?) from below the south end of the threshold or entrance to the vestibule of the temple, flowing eastward along the south side of the altar in the inner court. [Ezekiel's Temple, p. 386.]

Since the east gate is permanently shut (44:1-3), Ezekiel is led out of the temple complex via the north gate, around on the outside to the outer closed east gate (47:2). There he sees the water trickling along the south side of the fifty-cubit gateway (cf. NEB). The guide measured one thousand cubits (47:3; cf. 47:4ab, 5), an act which again forms an inclusio with the measuring of the temple vision (40:3, 5, etc.).

Ezekiel is led through the water three times, every one thousand cubits (47:3). From a trickle at the gateway (47:2), at the first wading the water is ankle-deep (47:3). At the second wading eastward, it is knee-deep (47:4). At the third, it is up to the waist. Another thousand cubits, and it is a river that cannot be crossed (47:5). Similar to the parable of the mustard seed (Matt. 13:31-32), the effect of God's rule begins with a trickle and increases as it flows along, growing under its own power.

Isaiah compared the gentle politics of the Lord, the Gihon "waters of Shiloah that flow gently," with the violent, destructive politics of Assyria, "the mighty flood waters of the [Euphrates] River" (Isa. 8:6-7). Now Ezekiel enlarges on the "Shiloah" stream of politics and economics that flows from under the place of [God's] throne (43:7). Curbing the powers of the prince (45:7-9; 46:16-18), it issues from the temple in a trickle that, growing into a life-giving river, gives fertility and healing to the devastated areas of the land.

As in the first half of this inclusio, the tour is silent, punctuated toward the end by the speeches of the guide (47:6, 8-12; cf. 40:4, 45; 41:4, 22; 42:13; 43:7, 18). The stream flows toward the eastern region, through the Judean desert, down into the Arabah (47:8). Even in the desert on both its banks, Ezekiel sees a great many trees (47:7). The Arabah (47:8), running both north and south of the Dead Sea, is part of the fault which continues south into the Red Sea and East Africa.

The Sea (47:8; "Salt Sea," Gen. 14:3, NRSV note for Heb.; "Sea of the Arabah," Deut. 3:17; "Eastern Sea," Joel 2:20; Ezek. 47:18) is 1300 feet below sea level, the lowest place on earth. It has no outlet

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and is stagnant and without fish. But like the transformation motif of the resurrection, everything will live where the river goes (47:9; cf. 37:1-14). From En-gedi (in the middle of the sea's west bank) to En-eglaim (northwest coast? site uncertain, ABD, 2:501) will be a large area of fresh water and a place for spreading of nets (47:10). Fish are as varied as those of the Great Sea, the Mediterranean. Swamps and marshes are left for salt, an important commodity (47:11).

Trees on both banks of the river bear fresh fruit every month, because the water flows from the sanctuary (47:12). Their fruit is for food and their leaves for healing. Such imagery abounds in Near Eastern literature, and as here, enters into the Bible (Gen. 2:10-14; Ps. 46:4; Joel 3:18; Zech. 14:8, Rev. 22:1-2). In Ezekiel and the Bible, such scenes issue, not from the rule of the gods mediated by a military prince, but from the Lord's rule mediated by a prophetic leader within a worshiping community.

The Text in Biblical Context

The Meaning of an Intrusion

The allotment of land as an inheritance (45:1-9), borrowed from a longer statement which allots the land as an inheritance to the tribes (47:1348:35, esp. 48:8-22), intrudes into this segment on temple regulations (44:447:12). Even more intrusive is its ending, a statement against oppression by princes and an exhortation to put away violence, to do justice, and to cease evictions (45:8-9). This ending is not found in the allotment's original source (48:8-22); its concern intrudes a second time into the temple regulations (46:16-18).

The concern of this intrusion shows up already in the story of the ninth-century prophet, Elijah (1 Kings 21). Naboth refused to sell his "ancestral inheritance," the right to his vineyard on the basis of ancient tribal distribution. His land was a gift from God, perhaps administered by the temple (21:3; cf. Josh. 14-19). Jezebel's Canaanite alternative was land ownership administered by kingship. Naboth was murdered, and his land was possessed by the king; then the prophet Elijah intervened.

A similar "intrusion" of kingship occurs in the vision of the temple tour, when Ezekiel hears the Lord speaking from the throne room (43:7-9). Never again will Israel or the kings defile the Lord's Name by worship of other gods, by intrusion of the kings' corpses, or by placing the palace cheek in jowl with the temple. The prince is not to intrude inwardly upon the Lord's throne room nor outwardly upon

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the tribal inheritance of the people. Both intrusions are intimately related.

The work of the temple priesthood, besides teaching and settling disputes, is to make atonement for the altar, the temple, and Israel (43:20-26; 45:15, 17, 20). Ezekiel's emphasis is on cleansing and forgiveness, that the Lord might accept Israel in the land (43:27). Priests and Levites enjoy their holy and most holy precincts (44:4-27). Prince and people are to participate in sacrificial worship, but they are confined to the outer court. Thus the Lord's authority is clarified; prince and people are not to intrude upon it. Ezekiel's vision makes clear that the river of life flows not from the palace but from the Lord's temple, to cleanse and to give life to the land.

The Text in the Life of the Church

Story Shaping Story

We have seen how the story of the exodus, celebrated in Israel's worship, has helped to shape the book of Ezekiel ("An International Prophet Redefines History," p. 17). This story, climaxing in the building of the sanctuary and eternal rule of God, gives meaning to Ezekiel's emphasis on the temple. Like the prophet of Isaiah 40-55, Ezekiel looks forward to a new exodus when Israel will again be saved from the nations and return to its land (Ezek. 20:34-38; cf. Isa. 43:15-17).

Willard Swartley shows how this story of the exodus also shaped the three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke (Swartley: 32-43). Although each Gospel has its own emphasis, all three have in common as an outline the four basic components of the exodus story (Exod. 15:1-18): The Lord's Salvation at the Sea, The Lord Leads the Conquest, The Lord Brings Them to His Sanctuary, The Lord Will Reign for Ever. The Gospel story is not a mere duplication of the exodus story; the Jesus story transforms it.

This pattern of the exodus story, which shaped the book of Ezekiel and synoptic Gospels, and which in turn was transformed by them, may also shape and be transformed by the lives of believers. Readers may reflect how the pattern of this ancient story can shape and give meaning to their life in the modern world.

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Yahweh Shammah: The Lord Is There:

Ezekiel 47:1348:35

Preview

Ezekiel's first pantomime and sermon forewarned that Jerusalem would be destroyed (4:15:17); his last vision closes with the promise of a new capital city (48:30-35). Jerusalem for Ezekiel is a rebellious, whoring, and bloody city; after it was destroyed, he never spoke of Jerusalem again. A "new Jerusalem" is not part of his vocabulary.

In his oracles of renewal, Ezekiel promises a new leadership and a renewed land and people, but he does not speak about a new capital until this temple vision. The two last Hebrew words of his vision specify a new name for this new capital, Yahweh Shammah, The Lord is There. Although other prophets give new names to the city to make a momentary point (Isa. 29:2; Zech. 8:3), Ezekiel renames the city as a permanent change.

By his description of territorial boundaries, tribal allotments, and a new capital, Ezekiel presents not a new geography but a new human geographya new relationship of Israel to the land (Stevenson). The new capital is no longer "David's royal city," a city belonging to the prince, but is integrated fully into the structure of the twelve tribes. The city is placed in the middle of a strip of secular land (48:15, NEB); the temple and holy place are no longer within its boundaries. By this new geographical description, Ezekiel speaks to the questions of power and authority. With this language, he speaks to major problems of our own century.

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Outline:

"These Are the Boundaries," 47:13-23

47:13-20

Boundaries on the North, East, South, West

47:21-23

An Allotment for the Alien

"These Are the Names of the Tribes," 48:1-29

48:1-7

Territories of the Northern Tribes

48:8-14

The Oblation: A Most Holy Place, a Holy Portion

48:15-22

The Property of the City and of the Prince

48:23-29

Territories of the Southern Tribes

"These Are the Exits of the City," 48:30-35

Explanatory Notes

The messenger formula, Thus says the Lord God (47:13), abruptly begins this description of the boundaries of the land (47:13-23), of the allotments for the tribes and their leadership (48:1-29), and of the new capital city (48:30-35). An oracle formula, says the Lord God, ends the segment on land boundaries and the one on tribal allotments (47:23; 48:29).

"These Are the Boundaries" 47:13-23

47:13-20 Boundaries on the North, East, South, West

This description of the boundaries of Israel (47:13; cf. 47:15-20) introduces the division of the land among the tribes (cf. 48:1-29). Joseph is to be given two portions, one to each of his sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (cf. 48:4-5; Gen. 48:8-22). Since Levi did not originally receive a portion, this double allotment completes the twelve tribal territories (Josh. 14:4). The pronoun you (pl.) refers to Israel (Ezek. 47:13-14, 21-23).

Ezekiel is concerned that the land be divided equally (47:14). This attention to justice causes him to ignore historical geography and to transform the topography of the land. His scheme is symbolic and never intended to be literally implemented. This transformation will fulfill the Lord's oath to the ancestors (cf. 20:5-6).

The book of Joshua describes individual tribal boundaries, but only Numbers 34:1-12 and Ezekiel 47:13-20 give a description of the total boundaries of the land of Israel. Ezekiel's description begins

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with the north side (47:15), while Numbers begins with the south (34:3); both describe four sides in a clockwise order. The description of the north side is the most debated since none of the place names are definitely identified. The Macmillan Bible Atlas states, ''The northern boundary, also described by the prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 47:15-18), reflects the extent of Egyptian control during the late thirteenth century B.C., probably in accordance with the peace agreement between Rameses II and the Hittites. . . . Transjordan south of the Yarmuk was never reckoned as a part of Canaan" (Aharoni: map 51). [Ezekiel's Division of the Land, p. 389.]

Below the sea of Galilee, the east side follows the Jordan River and the eastern bank of the Dead Sea (Aharoni, map 166). Meribath-kadesh and the Wadi of Egypt are on the south side (47:19; cf. Deut. 32:51; Josh. 15:4, 47). The west side follows the Great Sea (Mediterranean) northward to the point opposite Lebo-hamath, which began the description (47:20, 15; Num. 34:8; Josh. 13:5; 2 Kings 14:25).

47:21-23 An Allotment for the Alien

Land is to be divided according to the tribes of Israel (47:21). Ezekiel employs the old tribal structures for land distribution rather than the Canaanite kingship structure. The conflict between the two structures over land is evident in the story of Ahab and Naboth's vineyard (1 Kings 21). The prince is to have no right to dispossess the holdings of the people (cf. 46:18; "The Meaning of an Intrusion" in TBC for 44:447:12).

Israel is also to provide allotments for resident aliens (47:22). Again, this is to be inalienable since it is integrated among the tribes of Israel. Resident aliens were a phenomenon throughout the ancient Near East. For example, Assyrian merchants in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, left behind thousands of commercial tablets (19th cent. B.C.).

Although ancient Near Eastern law and justice were concerned for orphan and widow, only biblical law protected the resident alien (Exod. 22:21; 23:9). Ezekiel gives this concern its highest expression: They shall be to you as citizens of Israel (47:22; cf. 44:4-9).

"These Are the Names of the Tribes" 48:1-29

This statement begins with the allotments of seven tribes (48:1-7) and ends with the allotments of the remaining five tribes (48:23-29). Sandwiched between are portions set aside for priests, Levites, the

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city, and prince (48:8-22). The description moves from north to south.

48:1-7 Territories of the Northern Tribes

This allotment to the tribes (48:1) is different from that described in Joshua 13:1-33. [Ezekiel's Division of the Land, p. 389.] Joshua differs in that the tribe of Levi receives no allotment, for the Lord is his inheritance (13:14). Also, Joshua (but not Ezekiel) assigns three tribes to East Jordan: the half-tribe of Manasseh and the tribes of Reuben and Gad (Josh. 13:8-32). Joshua and Ezekiel agree that Joseph is divided into two tribes, Manasseh and Ephraim (Josh. 14:4; cf. Ezek. 47:13).

As in his description of the land boundaries (47:15), Ezekiel begins his allotment on the northern border. He assigns the traditionally far-northern tribes of Dan (cf. Judg. 18), Asher (48:2), and Naphtali (48:3) to northern positions (in what is now Syria and Lebanon!) and gives Gad (48:27) a southern position. These four are furthest from the holy center (48:10-12). In tribal relationships, they were regarded as sons of Rachel's and Leah's maids (Gen. 30:1-13). The eastern boundary of the northernmost tribes is not given.

Manasseh and Ephraim are Joseph tribes, grandsons of Rachel (48:4-5; cf. note on 48:1; Gen. 30:22-24; 41:51-52). Reuben and Judah are Leah tribes (48:6-7; cf. Gen. 29:32-35). If Ezekiel's first major correction of history is the transferal of the East-Jordan tribes to the West, his second is the transposition of Judah and Benjamin; he positions Judah north of Jerusalem and Benjamin south of the city, to end forever Israel's historic division (48:7, 23).

48:8-14 The Oblation: A Most Holy Place, a Holy Portion

Although the territorial assignments continue from north to south, Ezekiel breaks continuity here to describe The Center (48:822). To mark this break, Ezekiel borrows the language of sacrificial offerings. Ezekiel's Hebrew is literally translated by the KJV: The oblation that ye shall offer unto the Lord (48:9; cf. Num. 15:19). Israel is to offer this territory to God as sacred space.

Ezekiel has inserted a summary of 48:8-22 (see notes thereon) into the temple laws (cf. 45:1-8). Its purpose there is to restrict the power of the prince (45:8-9). It is enough here to see aspects of this enlargement which deal with the structure of the new community.

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Ezekiel 45:1 begins with 48:9, the holy district, 25,000 cubits long and 20,000 cubits wide (an area divided equally between priests and Levites, each 10,000 cubits wide, 45:3-5; 48:10, 13). On the other hand, 48:8-20 begins and ends with this holy portion together with the property of the city, a total area 25,000 cubits square (city property, 5,000 cubits wide, 48:20, 8).

This total area of 25,000 cubits square is called the whole portion (Heb.: terumah) that you shall set apart (tarimu, 48:20; cf. 48:8). This noun, occasionally with its corresponding verb, occurs twelve times throughout 48:8-22 (48:8, 9, 10, 12ab, 18ab, 20ab, 21abc: tribal portions, and the portion of the prince; 48:21-22 also translates Hebrew synonyms as portion). Apart from this and its parallel passage (45:1-8), the noun (terumah) occurs in the book of Ezekiel five times, always of sacrificial offerings (20:40; 44:30ab; 45:13, 16). In the priestly writings of the Pentateuch, this noun is used exclusively of sacrificial offerings and gifts for the tabernacle (Exod. 25:2; 29:27; Lev. 7:14; Num. 15:20; 31:52; Deut. 12:6).

Hence, within the context of our text, the word indicates a special offering to God. It is applied to the lands designated for the use of priests and Levites, and to the holdings of the city, but not to those of the prince. The word holy, on the other hand, is not applied to the holdings of the city; it is reserved only for the lands designated for the use of priests and Levites. Holy (Heb.: qodes *) is used seven times of the priests and Levites' mutual portion (48:10, 14, 18ab, 20, 21ab); the priestly portion is also designated as most holy (48:12).

48:15-22 The Property of the City and of the Prince

Jerusalem's portion, in contrast to the holy portion of priests and Levites, is designated for ordinary use (Heb.: hol*, 48:15). The NEB calls it the city's secular land. Secular, ordinary use, or common is a neutral term, the opposite of holy, set apart, sacred. Thus secular (hol) differs from being unclean (tahor), the opposite of clean (cf. 44:23). In contrast to secular, unclean is not neutral; it means that because of some activity or condition, a person or object has become contaminated by a foreign substance or power. To be clean, the person or object must submit to a bath or other ritual cleansing (cf. IDB, 1:644). If the secular intrudes upon the holy, it becomes unclean. For the political significance of this exclusion of the city's portion from the holy, see TBC below.

The workers of the city are from all the tribes of Israel and thus

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represent all the tribes (48:18-19). The ancient tribal structure was not necessarily rural and could as well be urban, as indicated here. This pattern contrasts sharply with the centralized kingship structure of the typical Canaanite city-state. The workers of the city, by cultivating the portion, are not to be a burden either upon their own tribes or the city.

The prince's property is to extend eastward and westward from the two sides of the holy portion (Heb.: terumah) and the property of the city, and on to the east and west borders of Israel (48:21). It is to extend in the north from Judah and then southward to Benjamin. [Ezekiel's Division of the Land, p. 389.] In 48:21b the term holy portion is limited to the territory used by the priests; in the middle of this, the sanctuary is to be placed (48:21).

48:23-29 Territories of the Southern Tribes

Note again the transposition of the tribes of Benjamin (48:23) and Judah (48:7). By placing Judah among the northern tribes, Ezekiel seeks to end forever the conflict between north and south, a conflict which sundered the kingdom (922 B.C.; 1 Kings 12), and which continued into the Christian era (John 4). Benjamin is the younger brother of Joseph; both were favored sons of Rachel (Gen. 35:16-26).

Simeon (48:24), Issachar (48:25), and Zebulon (48:26) are Leah tribes (Gen. 35:23). The tribe of Gad (48:27), son of Zilpah, Leah's maid (Gen. 35:26), is furthest south from the holy center (cf. notes on 48:2). Gad's southern boundary coincides with that of Israel (48:28; cf. 47:19).

Note again that the allotment is among the tribes of Israel (48:29), an emphasis throughout (47:13, 21-22; 48:19). The political construct is that of the egalitarian covenant tribal structure, not that of the hierarchical Canaanite city-state kingship structure.

"These Are the Exits of the City" 48:30-35

Jerusalem is named 23 times throughout chapters 4-24, always in oracles of judgment; in 33:21 it is named in the report of its fall. In the oracles of restoration (chaps. 34-48), the city is never restored until at the end of this vision (45:6-7; 48:15-35). Even here it is not mentioned by the name "Jerusalem" but is exclusively called the city, except for its new name (48:35). In Ezekiel's new order, there is no

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place for Jerusalem except as it is radically reoriented in relation to the tribes and to the holy, and as it is given a new name (PREVIEW).

In his description of the city, Ezekiel significantly focuses on the exits (48:30), named for the various tribes to whom the city belongs (cf. notes on 48:18-19). The city's measure coincides with the dimensions of 48:16, which is 4,500 cubits square (48:30, 32-35).

As in the description of the land (47:15-20), the city's description begins on the north side (48:30) and continues clockwise to the west side (48:34). The three gates on the north side, opening out toward the holy portion, are named after three Leah tribes, Reuben, Judah, and Levi (48:31; cf. Gen. 35:23). Because Levi historically had no tribal territory, he is not enumerated in the territorial distribution as a tribe (48:1-29). Here, however, Levi is recognized as a tribe, and Ephraim and Manasseh are incorporated as Joseph (48:32; cf. 48:4-5). Two gates on the east side are named for the Rachel tribes, Joseph and Benjamin, and one for Dan, a Bilhah tribe (Rachel's maid, 48:32; cf. Gen. 35:24-25). Three gates on the south side are named for Leah tribes Simeon, Issachar, and Zebulun (48:33; cf. Gen. 35:23). Two gates on the west side are named for Gad and Asher, Zilpah tribes (Leah's maid, 48:34; cf. Gen. 35:26), and the remaining gate for Naphtali, a Bilhah tribe (Gen. 35:25).

The city is not called Jerusalem. Instead, it will be given a new name: Yahweh Shammah, The Lord Is There (48:35). On a surface reading, this name gives to this segment a different perspective from that of 47:1348:29. There the holy portion lies outside the city and is the focus of the tribal structure; the city, like the prince, has a limited role (cf. 45:1-8). Here, in contrast, the city is the focus of the tribal structure. Many commentators assume, because of its name, that even the temple is within it (cf. Aharoni: map 165). They tend to think that this perspective of Jerusalem is the product of a later and more conventional writer. Perhaps so. But to permanently rename the city may be nearly as unconventional as to remove from it the center of holiness. Ezekiel presented Jerusalem in 5:5 as the center of the nations. Here he presents the capital as the political center of the tribes, though not the center of holiness (cf. Boadt, 1986:190-193). For the underlying unity of the two perspectives, see TBC below.

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The Text in Biblical Context

Yahweh Shammah: Ezekiel's Political Theology

This essay is made up of six reflections on the theology of the book of Ezekiel from the perspective of his final vision.

1. The book of Ezekiel tells about the victory of the rule of God. Ezekiel's temple vision is the climax of a movement throughout the book, a movement which compares to the story of Israel's ancient worship. The book begins with a theophany, the appearance of God in a war chariot to commission the prophet Ezekiel as the Lord's sentinel (chaps. 1-3). In this role, Ezekiel warns rebellious Jerusalem and the nations of their impending doom (chaps. 4-32). After the fall of Jerusalem, the "continental divide" of his ministry, Ezekiel proclaims the Lord's victory. God will establish a resurrected community in a renewed land (chaps. 33; 34-37), and God will provide for that community new structures of power and authority for governance in that land (chaps. 40-48).

2. The temple vision of Ezekiel is set within the context of God's concern for the nations and against the background of the Lord's defeat of Gog (37:26-28; chaps. 38-39). God's purpose in establishing the sanctuary in Israel is that the nations might acknowledge that Israel is set apart as their spiritual and moral exemplar (37:28; cf. 5:5). God's purpose in defeating Gog, a story sandwiched between the prediction of temple building and Ezekiel's vision, is that the nations might acknowledge the rule of the Lord, a rule which requires a moral rather than military interpretation of history (39:23; cf. 37:26-28; 40:1-2). Gog symbolizes the pretension of empire to rule history by human wisdom and violence. Against that pretension, Ezekiel presents a vision of the Lord's rule of a community through new structures of power and authority given by God.

3. Access to the Lord, who rules from the temple, is by way of the altar. Its worship emphasizes cleansing, forgiveness, and reconciliation (43:1346:24). From this temple a living stream flows out to cleanse and water and heal the land (47:1-12).

4. Ezekiel's vision marks a division between the secular and the Holy. The territory of the city is not included within the holy oblation, nor is the temple any longer within the territory of the city (48:10, 15, 18, KJV). Through the prophet, "constitutional law" is proclaimed by the Lord of the temple, and this law both prince and people are to obey. The city is named The Lord Is There, not because the temple is now regarded as within the city, but because the city acknowledges its

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secularity; it does not intrude upon the authority of the Holy but subjects itself to the Holy.

5. The city is integrated into the covenant structure of the tribes, with egalitarian concepts of justice. No longer is it the "city of David," owned by the prince. The prince is not to intrude upon the rule of God. Likewise, he is not to intrude upon the rights of the people.

6. Ezekiel's clear boundary between holy and secular has implications not only for politics but also for worship. [Worship, p. 382.] The Lord is a personal God who is not to be identified with the impersonal powers of economics or human politics. Ezekiel's boundaries anticipate the prayer of Jesus to the Father who is in heaven, whose name is to be hallowed, whose will is to be done on earth, and who gives bread and forgiveness to all who ask (Matt. 6:9-13).

The Text in the Life of the Church

Yahweh Shammah and the Twenty-First Century

Like Ezekiel, Jesus predicted the destruction of the temple. Unlike Ezekiel, however, Jesus never projected an architectural vision of a new temple. In fact, the three monotheistic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) discontinue the architecture of the Near Eastern temple, which had divinity or Name inside the building and the congregation outside. Instead, they adopt the architecture of the synagogue, with the congregation inside the building and divinity present among them (cf. ABD, 6:351).

For the early church and for Jesus, the new temple is his resurrected body (John 2:19-22; cf. Rev. 21:22). The temple (Greek: naos, "dwelling place") is identified as the Christian congregation, with the apostles and prophets as its foundation, Jesus Christ as its cornerstone, and God's Spirit dwelling within (Eph. 2:20-21; 1 Cor. 3:16-17). The presence of the risen Christ makes the congregation the place of authority for binding and loosing: "For where two or three are gathered in my name, I am there among them" (Matt. 18:15-20). "All authority in heaven and on earth" has been given to this resurrected Jesus (Matt. 28:18).

To clarify how this authority is mediated for life today, some congregations have adopted a statement of covenant. Here are excerpts from one such covenant:

"We . . . are a voluntary community of faith in God, whose authori-

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ty and grace are revealed in the Scriptures and supremely in Jesus Christ, his Son." This is followed by an acknowledgment of the congregation's indebtedness to the whole Christian tradition and to its unique historical heritage. The congregation affirms cooperation with other congregations, worldwide and locally, who share a common purpose to follow Christ.

The covenant continues, affirming that God is at work forming a people; that baptism is a witness to personal surrender to Jesus as Lord, to adoption into God's family, and to the gift of the Holy Spirit. The covenant affirms that in Christ the congregation is united into one mutually supportive and accountable body. It asserts the victory of God's kingdom over the powers of evil "as the Holy Spirit creates in us spiritual worship, trust for each other, faithful discipleship, and joyful witness."

To give substance to these affirmations, individual members covenant with the congregation: "I covenant with them in mutual trust and accountability to give and receive counsel as together we seek to bring all of life under the lordship of Christ." Individual members acknowledge the importance of a primary group for faithful discipleship. They commit themselves to participate in "congregational worship, study, fellowship, and decision-making"; to seek with other members to "discover, affirm, and develop spiritual gifts"; to invest material and spiritual resources for the needs of family, church, and world; and to keep the ''personal consumption of goods under the disciplines of love and compassion."

Members commit themselves to "be molded by Christ's example of forgiving, accepting, nonresistant, nondiscriminating love" as an answer to the world's alienation and violence. They pledge themselves to "identify new issues which call for prophetic Christian witness," to share the good news in deed and word, and to help fulfill the congregation's ministry both locally and in the world (College).

The congregation will know that The Lord Is There when it experiences the Holy and when it acknowledges the authority of the Holy over its secular life.

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OUTLINE OF EZEKIEL

Part 1: VISION OF GOD IN A COSMIC WAR CHARIOT: EZEKIEL'S COMMISSION

1:13:27

Ezekiel Commissioned for Public Ministry

1:13:15

Introduction (a)

1:1-3

The Vision of the Chariot (b)

1:4-28a

The Living Creatures

1:4-14

The Chariot Wheels

1:15-21

The Lord Enthroned on the Dome of the Universe

1:22-28a

The Commission (c)

1:28b2:7

Central Core: Eating the Scroll (d)

2:83:3

The Commission (c^1)

3:4-11

The Vision of the Chariot (b^1)

3:12-13

Conclusion (a^1)

3:14-15

Ezekiel the Sentinel

3:16-27

Ezekiel, Sentinel for the House of Israel

3:16-21

Ezekiel Appointed as Sentinel

3:16-17

A Sentinel to Warn the Wicked

3:18-19

A Sentinel to Warn the Righteous

3:20-21

Ezekiel Under House Arrest

3:22-27

Ezekiel Moves to the Valley

3:22-23

House Arrest, Trussed Up and Speechless

3:24-27

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Part 2: THE LORD'S VICTORY OVER ARROGANT JERUSALEM AND JUDAH

4:124:27

Ezekiel's Street Theater: Pantomime, Sermon

4:15:17

Ezekiel's Pantomime

4:15:4

First Scene: The Siege

4:1-8

Envelope a: Acting Out the Siege

4:1-3

Core Act: Ezekiel Bears the Punishment

4:4-6

Envelope a^1: Acting Out the Siege

4:7-8

Second Scene: Ezekiel on Famine Rations

4:9-17

Third Scene: Ezekiel Shaves Head and Beard

5:1-4

Ezekiel's First Sermon: Homily on the Pantomime

5:5-17

Setting for Indictment: God's Act of Grace

5:5

First Indictment: Israel's Rebellion Against Grace

5:6-7

The Lord Judges Jerusalem

5:8-12

The People Shall Know: The Lord Has Spoken

5:13-17

You Mountains of Israel, Hear the Word of the Lord

6:1-14

Prophesy Against the Mountains

6:1-7

Some of You Shall Escape

6:8-10

Alas for All the Vile Abominations

6:11-14

The Grand Finale: Day of the Lord

7:1-27

The End: A Pronouncement

7:1-9

The End Has Come

7:1-4

The Day Is Near

7:5-9

The Day: Detailing the Judgments

7:10-22

Judgment upon Violence and Economic Injustice

7:10-13

Judgment upon Armaments

7:14-16

Judgment upon Hoarded Wealth

7:17-22

The Grand Finale

7:23-27

Temple Vision: The Exit of God

8:111:25

Elders' Inquiry; Ezekiel Visits Jerusalem in a Vision

8:1-4

The Lord's Response to Judah's Proverb

8:510:8

Four AbominationsPlus! "The Lord Does Not See"

8:5-18

First Abomination

8:5-6

Second Abomination

8:7-13

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Third and Fourth Abominations

8:14-16

Worse Than All Abominations: Violence

8:17-18

Jerusalem Burns: "The Lord Has Forsaken the Land!"

9:110:8

The Slaughter

9:1-11

The City Burns

10:1-8

The Chariot Vision

10:9-22

The Lord's Response to Judah's Proverbs

11:1-21

Plotters at East Gate: "City, the Pot; We, the Meat"

11:1-13

Citizens of Jerusalem: "To Us This Land Is Given!"

11:14-21

The Glory Abandons Temple; Ezekiel Returns to Exiles

11:22-25

Exile Bundle: Pantomiming Against Official Policy

12:1-20

Pantomime Against the King's Policy

12:1-16

The Pantomime

12:1-7

The Command to Do the Pantomime

12:1-6

Its Performance

12:7

The Pantomime Interpreted

12:8-16

Pantomime of Jerusalem's Doom

12:17-20

The Pantomime

12:17-18

The Pantomime Interpreted

12:19-20

"What Is This Proverb?" Debate with the People

12:21-28

Oracle Against Judah's Proverb

12:21-25

Introduction and Proverb

12:21-22

Proverb Reversed and Refuted

12:23-25

Oracle Against the Exiles' Proverb

12:26-28

Introduction and Proverb

12:26-27

Proverb Negated

12:28

"Daubers of Whitewash": Against the Prophets

13:1-23

Revelation Formula

13:1

Against Male Prophets

13:2-16

Indictment-Judgment Series I

13:2-9

Indictment-Judgment Series II

13:10-16

Against Female Prophets

13:17-23

Indictment-Judgment Series I

13:17-21

Indictment-Judgment Series II

13:22-23

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The Silent God

14:1-23

"Shall I Let Myself Be Consulted?"

14:1-11

Elders Consult, God Questions

14:1-3

A Legal Oracle for the Elders

14:4-5

A Legal Oracle for Israel

14:6-8

A Legal Oracle for the Misguided Prophet

14:9-10

The Saving Purpose of God's Silence

14:11

Do Not Pray for This People

14:12-23

No Reprieve from the General Law of Retribution

14:12-20

No Reprieve from This Law for Jerusalem

14:21

But Surprise!

14:22-23

Jerusalem, a Vine in the Forest

15:1-8

Metaphor: A Vine in Middle of the Forest

15:1-5

Lesson: City Learns Nothing, Threat of Being Twice-Burned

15:6-8

Story as Indictment

16:1-63

Introduction

16:1-2

Story as Indictment

16:3-34

Abandoned Baby Girl

16:3-5

Twice, the Lord Passes By

16:6-14

The First Passing, Election: Abraham to Egypt

16:6-7

The Second Passing, Covenant: Egypt to Solomon

16:8-14

Jerusalem's Response: Harlotry

16:15-34

Cultic Harlotry: The First Commandment

16:15-22

Diplomatic Harlotry: Militarism

16:23-29

Bizarre Nature of Jerusalem's Harlotry

16:30-34

Story as Legal Sentence

16:35-52

Indictment Restated and Sentence Passed

16:35-43a

Sentence Justified

16:43b-52

Restoration

16:53-63

Restored with Sodom and Samaria

16:53-58

Eternal Covenant

16:59-63

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Two Sprigs, a Vine, and Three Gardeners

17:1-24

Introduction, an Allegory

17:1-2

Allegory of Two Jealous Gardeners

17:3-10

The First Gardener (an Eagle)

17:3-6

The Second Gardener (an Eagle)

17:7-8

Four Rhetorical Questions

17:9-10

The Allegory Interpreted

17:11-21

Zedekiah Breaks Babylon's Covenant; Results

17:11-18

Zedekiah Breaks the Lord's Covenant; Results

17:19-21

The Authentic Gardener

17:22-24

Turn and Live!

18:1-32

Revelation Formula

18:1

Corporate Retribution Denied: Three Generations

18:2-20

People's Proverb Refuted: One Who Sins Shall Die

18:2-18

The First Generation

18:5-9

The Second and Third Generations

18:10-18

People's Objection Refuted: One Who Sins Shall Die

18:19-20

Retribution for Past Denied: Power of Ethical Decision

18:21-29

Conclusion: Turn and Live!

18:30-32

A Dirge for Jerusalem's Government

19:1-14

Introduction: A Funeral Song

19:1

Your Mother: The Lioness and Her Cubs

19:2-9

The First Cub: Jehoahaz

19:2-4

The Second Cub: Jehoiachin

19:5-9

Your Mother: The Vine and Its Stem

19:10-14

The Vine Flourishes

19:10

The Ruler's Scepter and Its Arrogance

19:11

The Vine: Plucked up, Dried up, Transplanted

19:12-13

Branches Consumed: No Stem for a Ruler's Scepter

19:14

"I Will Be King over You!"

20:1-44

Introduction: The Elders Consult, Ezekiel Judges

20:1-4

Ezekiel Recounts the Story of the Ancestors

20:5-29

Rebellion in Egypt

20:5-9

Rebellion in the Wilderness: First Generation

20:10-17

Rebellion in the Wilderness: Second Generation

20:18-26

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Rebellion in the Land

20:27-29

Ezekiel Judges Israel's Present Rebellion

20:30-41

Israel Is Disloyal, Like Its Ancestors

20:30-32

God as King, Gathering and Purging Israel

20:33-38

God as King, Setting Israel on the Mountain

20:39-41

Israel Shall Know, "I AM" Is Their God"

20:42-44

The Sword of the Lord                                                 20:4521:32 (Hebrew, 21:1-37)

First Sword Oracle: Against the South, Jerusalem

20:4521:7

Allegory of the Forest Fire

20:45-49

The Allegory Interpreted: The Sword of the Lord

21:1-7

Second Oracle: Song of the Sword

21:8-17

The Sword, Made and Delivered to Israel's Slayer

21:8-13

The Sword, Directed by the Lord's Prophetic Word

21:14-17

Third Oracle: Two Ways for the Sword

21:18-32

The Way to Jerusalem

21:18-27

The King of Babylon's Decision

21:18-23

The Day of the Lord's Judgment

21:24-27

The Sword upon Ammonand Babylon!

21:28-32

The Bloody City

22:131

Declaration of Jerusalem's Abominations

22:1-16

A City of Murder and Idolatry

22:1-5

A List of Broken Laws

22:6-12

The Exile as Discipline

22:13-16

Israel Has Become Refuse

22:17-22

A Polluted Land

22:23-31

Sins of the Leaders

22:23-29

No One to Stand in the Breach

22:30-31

Cycle of Diplomacy: From Egypt to Egypt

23:1-49

Diplomacy of Sister Nations with Near Eastern Powers

23:1-35

The Two Nations and Egypt

23:1-4

Samaria's Diplomacy with Assyria

23:5-10

Jerusalem's Corrupt Diplomatic Relations

23:11-21

Diplomacy with Assyria

23:11-13

Diplomacy with Babylon

23:14-18

Diplomacy with Egypt

23:19-21

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Four Threats of Judgment Against Jerusalem

23:22-35

Declaring Abominations of the Sister Nations

23:36-49

Abominations of the Two Nations

32:36-42

Judgment Threats Against the Two Nations

32:43-49

The Pot Boils and a Woman Dies

24:1-27

Introduction: The Date of Jerusalem's Siege

24:1-3a

Song of the Pot

24:3b-14

Song of the Boiling Pot

24:3-5

Song of the Encrusted Pot

24:6-8

Song of the Hopeless Pot

24:9-12

Prose Conclusion

24:13-14

Sign upon Sign

24:15-27

The First Sign: Death of Ezekiel's Wife

24:15-24

The Second Sign: Ezekiel's Restored Speech

24:25-27

Part 3: THE LORD'S VICTORY OVER ARROGANT NATIONS AND EMPIRES

25:132:32

Oracles to the Nations: No Private Vengeance!

25:1-17

Two Oracles Against the Ammonites

25:1-7

Oracle Against Moab

25:8-11

Oracle Against Edom

25:12-14

Oracle Against Philistia

25:15-17

First Revelation Against Tyre: A Scraped Rock

26:1-21

The Date and Revelation Formula

26:1

The Primary Prophecy Against Tyre

26:2-6

Description of the Attack

26:7-14

Reaction of Area Political Leaders to Tyre's Fall

26:15-18

Tyre's Descent to the Underworld

26:19-21

Second Revelation Against Tyre: Ship Lost at Sea

27:1-36

Introduction: Lamentation over Tyre

27:1-3d

Poetic Envelope One: The Commercial Ship

27:3e-11

Its Structure

27:3e-7

Its Crew

27:8-9

Its Military Force

27:10-11

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Prose Insert: The Trade List

27:12-25a

Poetic Envelope Two: Shipwreck at Sea

27:25b-36

The Shipwreck

27:25b-27

Ritual Mourning

27:28-31

Lamentation Within a Lamentation

27:32-36

Third and Fourth Revelations Against Tyre

28:1-26

An Oracle Against Tyre's Political Leader

28:1-10

Introduction and Indictment

28:1-5

Threat of Judgment

28:6-10

Lamentation Against Tyre's Political Leader

28:11-19

Revelation, Address, and Messenger Formulas

28:11-12c

What Once Was

28:12d-15b

What Happens Later

28:15c-19

An Oracle Against Sidon; Summation

28:20-23

An Oracle of Promise for Israel; Summation

28:24-26

Seven Revelations Against Egypt: Paper Tiger

29:132:32

First Revelation: The Primeval Dragon

29:1-16

Date, Revelation Formula, Prophetic Address

29:1-2

Against Pharaoh, the Primeval Dragon

29:3-6a

Against Pharaoh, Treacherous Ally

29:6b-9b

Against Pharaoh, But for Egypt

29:9c-16

Second Revelation: A Prophet's Exchange

29:17-21

Date and Revelation Formula

29:17

The Prophet's Exchange: Egypt for Tyre

29:18-20

A Bright Future for Israel and the Prophet

29:21

Third Revelation: Doomsday

30:1-19

Revelation Formula and Prophetic Address

30:1-2a

Day of the Lord, the Fall of Egypt

30:2b-9

Egypt's Destruction by Foreigners

30:10-12

No Hiding Place

30:13-18

Summary and Objective

30:19

Fourth Revelation: Both Arms Broken

30:20-26

Fifth Revelation: Power Myth of the World Tree

31:1-18

Date and Revelation Formula

31:1-2a

Whom Is Pharaoh Like? Consider Assyria!

31:2b-17

Assyria as the World Tree

31:3-9

Assyria's Arrogance, Judgment, Journey to Sheol

31:10-17

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Pharaoh Cut Down with the Community of Nations

31:18

Sixth Revelation: Slaying the Dragon

32:1-16

Date and Revelation Formula for a Lamentation

32:1-2a

The Dragon Hunt

32:2b-10

Sword of the King of Babylon

32:11-15

Conclusion: Use of this Lamentation

32:16

Seventh Revelation: Sent Down to the Pit

32:17-32

Date and Revelation Formula

32:17

Egypt Consigned to Sheol with Powers of the Past

32:18-28

Egypt to Lie with Israel's Neighbors

32:29-30

Punch Line: Pharaoh Consoled by Shared Misery

32:31-32

THE GREAT DIVIDE: THE LORD'S VICTORY: REPORT OF CITY'S FALL

33:1-33

Not Fate but Choice: Responsibility

33:1-33

Responsible for the Fall: Prophet, God, or People?

33:1-20

The Prophet as Sentinel

33:1-9

Not Fate but Choice

33:10-20

Report of Jerusalem's Fall

33:21-22

Aftermath of the Fall: No Repentance

33:23-33

The People in the Land Take Possession

33:23-29

The People in Exile Seek Entertainment

33:30-33

Part 4: THE LORD'S VICTORY: A NEW COMMUNITY IN A RENEWED LAND

34:137:28

The Good Shepherd

34:1-31

Address to the Shepherds

34:1-16

Indictment: "You Feed Yourselves"

34:1-6

Judgment Threat: "I Am Against the Shepherds"

34:7-10

Liberation: God as Shepherd

34:11-16

Address to the Flock

34:17-24

Indictment: "You Foul the Rest"

34:17-19

Judgment and Liberation

34:20-24

Covenant of Peace and Security

34:25-31

Mountain Versus Mountain

35:136:15

Revelation Formula

35:1

Page 372

''Prophesy Against Mount Seir"

35:2-15

The Lord's Two Oaths of Judgment

35:2-13

Summary Statement of Judgment

35:14-15

"Prophesy to the Mountains of Israel"

36:1-15

Neighboring Nations Will Be Censured

36:1-7

The Mountains of Israel Will Be Fertile

36:8-12

Israel's Stigma Will Be Removed

36:13-15

A New People in a Renewed Land

36:16-38

Revelation Formula

36:16

Address to Ezekiel: The Lord's Predicament

36:17-21

Address to Israel: Response to the Predicament

36:22-32

God's Motivation for Action: The Name

36:22-23

God's Five Acts for Israel

36:24-30

First Act: From the Nations, into the Land

36:24

Second Act: Cleansing with Water

36:25

Third Act: New Heart and New Spirit

36:26

Fourth Act: Gift of God's Spirit

36:27-28

Fifth Act: Saved from Uncleanness; More Fertility

36:29-30

Israel's Response: Shame, Dismay for Evil Ways

36:31-32

The Nations Shall Recognize the Lord

36:33-36

Israel Shall Recognize the Lord

36:37-38

Can These Bones Live?

37:1-14

Ezekiel's Visionary Experience

37:1-10

The Prophet Considers the Dry Bones

37:1-3

The Prophet's Address to the Bones

37:4-8

The Prophet's Address to the Wind

37:9-10

The Vision Interpreted

37:11-14

The Interpretation

37:11

The Prophet's Address to Israel

37:12-14

Eternal Covenant of Peace: One People Around God's Sanctuary

37:15-28

Introduction

37:15

Prophetic Act: Two Leaves, One Tablet

37:16-19

One Nation, Saved from Disloyalty

37:20-24a

Eternal People Around God's Eternal Sanctuary

37:24b-28

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Part 5: The LORD'S VICTORY: DEFEAT OF IMPERIALISM, ARROGANCE, AND TERROR

38:139:29

Gog's End in the Land of the Quiet People

38:139:29

Introduction

38:1

God Versus Gog

38:2-13

"I Will Put Hooks in Your Jaws and Lead You Out"

38:2-9

"You Will Devise an Evil Scheme"

38:10-13

Gog Versus Israel

38:14-23

"You Will Come Up Against My People, Israel"

38:14-16

"I Will Summon the Sword Against Gog"

38:17-23

Gog Destroyed on the Mountains of Israel

39:1-16

"You Shall Fall upon the Mountains of Israel"

39:1-8

"Israel Will Make Fires of the Weapons"

39:9-10

"I Will Give Gog a Place for Burial"

39:11-16

A Sacrificial Feast on the Mountains of Israel

39:17-20

Concluding Remarks

39:21-29

Gog's Defeat Will Teach Israel and the Nations

39:21-24

Exile and Gathering Will Teach Israel

39:25-29

Part 6: THE LORD'S VICTORY: ETERNAL SANCTUARY, PLACE OF GOD'S THRONE

40:148:35

The Temple Tour: Place of God's Throne

40:144:3

The Date, High Mountain, and Measuring Reed

40:1-4

Tour of the Temple Courts and Their Gates

40:5-47

The Wall, the Outer Court and Its Gates

40:5-27

The Inner Court and Its Gates

40:28-47

Tour of the Temple and West Building

40:4841:26

Vestibule, Nave, Most Holy Place

40:4841:4

Side Chambers, West Building, Paneling, Table

41:5-26

Tour of the Holy Chambers and Outer Wall

42:1-20

The Glory Enters; God's Throne in the Temple

43:1-12

Cleansing: The Altar and Closed Gate

43:1344:3

Temple Law and the River of Life

44:447:12

God's Rule Mediated Through Temple Leadership

44:4-31

Non-Zadokite Levites, Ministers in the Sanctuary

44:4-14

Zadokite Priests, Ministers at the Altar

44:15-27

Provision for the Priests

44:28-31

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Israel as Steward: Holy Portion, City Area, Prince

45:1-9

Israel as Steward: Offering of Sacrifices

45:1046:15

Just Measures for Communal Sacrifices

45:10-17

Offerings for Specific Festivals

45:18-25

Entrance Laws: Sabbatical, New Moon Sacrifices

46:1-10

Entrance Laws: Festival, Freewill, Daily Offerings

46:11-15

Laws and Provisions for Prince, Priests, People

46:16-24

Laws for Princely Inheritance

46:16-18

Kitchens for Priests and People

46:19-24

Healing Waters Flowing from the Temple

47:1-12

Yahweh Shammah: The Lord Is There

47:1348:35

"These Are the Boundaries"

47:13-23

Boundaries on the North, East, South, West

47:13-20

An Allotment for the Alien

47:21-23

"These Are the Names of the Tribes"

48:1-29

Territories of the Northern Tribes

48:1-7

The Oblation: A Most Holy Place, a Holy Portion

48:8-14

The Property of the City and of the Prince

48:15-22

Territories of the Southern Tribes

48:23-29

"These Are the Exits of the City"

48:30-35

Page 375

ESSAYS

Contents

Abbreviations

376

Chronology of Ezekiel

377

Economic Justice

377

The Glory of the Lord

378

Inclusio

379

Kings of Judah

380

Messenger Formula

380

Recognition Formula

380

Revelation Formula

381

Son of Man

381

Spirit

381

Structure of Ezekiel

381

Succession of Prophets

382

Worship

382

Map of the Ancient Near East in Ezekiel's Time

385

Charts of Ezekiel's Temple, Gates, and Altar

386-388

Ezekiel's Division of the Land

389

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Abbreviations

ABD

Anchor Bible Dictionary (see Bibliography)

A.D.

anno Domini, in the year of the Lord, present era

AM

The Atlantic Monthly

ANEP

The Ancient Near East in Pictures (see Bibliography)

ANET

Ancient Near Eastern Texts (see Bibliography)

B.C.

Before Christ

c.

circa, approximately

cent.

century

cf.

conferre, compare

chap./chaps.

chapter/chapters

EJ

Encyclopedia Judaica (see Bibliography)

ER

Encyclopedia of Religion (see Bibliography)

esp.

especially

Ezek.

Ezekiel. Bible book names abbreviated to first letters.

GNB

The Good News Bible: Today's English Version

Heb.

Hebrew text

IDB

The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible (see Bibliography)

JB

The Jerusalem Bible

KJV

King James Version

LXX

The Septuagint, Greek OT

ME

The Mennonite Encyclopedia (see Bibliography)

MM

Martyrs Mirror: See Braght in Bibliography.

MWR

The Mennonite Weekly Review (Newton, Kansas)

NEB

The New English Bible

NIV

New International Version

note(s)

explanatory notes on each section

NRSV

New Revised Standard Version

NT

New Testament

NYT

The New York Times

OT

Old Testament

pl./sing.

plural/singular in number

RSV

Revised Standard Version

TBC

The Text in Biblical Context (after notes)

TLC

The Text in the Life of the Church (after TBC)

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Chronology Of Ezekiel

(Adapted from Greenberg, 1983:8)

Year

Month

Day

Event

1:1

30

4

5 (July 568 B.C.?)

Publication of book?

1:2-3

5

--

5 (July 593)

Call vision (cf. Jer. 27:1)

3:16

a week later

Appointed as sentinel

8:1

6

6

5 (Sept. 592)

Elders consult; vision

20:1

7

5

10 (Aug. 591)

Elders consult

24:1

9

10

10 (Jan. 588)

Jerusalem besieged

26:1

11

--

1 (587/586)

Oracle against Tyre

29:1

10

10

12 (Jan. 587)

Oracle against Egypt

29:17

27

1

1 (Apr. 571)

Trade Egypt for Tyre

30:20

11

1

7 (Apr. 587)

Oracle against Pharaoh

31:1

11

3

1 (June 587)

Oracle against Pharaoh

32:1

12

12

1 (Mar. 585)

Oracle against Pharaoh

32:17

12

1?

15 (Apr.? 586/585)

Oracle against Egypt

33:21

11?/12

10

5 (Jan. 586?/585)

Report of city's fall

40:1

25

1

10 (Apr./Oct. 573)

Temple vision

The anchor for all dates is the year of Jehoiachin's exile, 597 B.C., with the possible exception of year 30 (see notes on 1:1). Compare 2 Kings 24:817; 2 Chron. 36:9-10; and the Babylonian Chronicle (ANET: 564).

Economic Justice

A first principle of economic justice in the OT is that theology and economics are intrinsically related. Over half the legal listings of Ezekiel 18 have to do with economic justice, laws which guard against oppression and violence. These economic laws are listed together with laws dealing with theology, the worship and service of one God. One cannot understand biblical justice without grasping this unique relationship of theology and economics. The theological covenant relationship with the one God provides the structure for economics. Laws which provide for this just economic structure are listed first (cf. "Kept Free by the Law" in TBC for 18:1-32).

A second principle of biblical justice is that it is egalitarian. Justice distinguishes between social classes only to promote economic parity and to protect the rights of slaves, the poor, and the less privileged in society. The law of every seventh year's remission of debts is to be obeyed so that "there will . . . be no one in need among you" (Deut. 15:4). On the other hand, "since there will never cease to be some in need on the earth," God therefore commands, "Open your hand to the poor and needy neighbor in your land" (Deut. 15:11). Helping the poor is not a matter of "charity'' but a matter of justice. Paul has it right: "It is a question of a fair balance . . . As it is written, 'The one who had much did not have too much, and the one who had little did not have too little' "(2 Cor. 8:13-15; cf. Exod. 16:18).

A third principle of economic justice is that the economic structures must be horizontal social structures rather than hierarchical. For purposes of economic justice, Israel was to have a horizontal tribal structure consisting of a covenantal interrelationship of tribes, clans, and nuclear households (cf. Lind, 1990:216-220). Unity was to be achieved not through oppressive vertical structures but by associations and structures which cut across the entire society.

For example, the tribe of Levi was divested of land to protect Israel from

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conflicting interests of leadership. The Levites were scattered throughout the land of Israel. They may have been responsible to convene meetings for Israel at least once every seven years (Deut. 31:9-13), perhaps yearly. Besides feasting and worship celebrations, at these meetings covenant commitment was reenacted, and law was adjusted and proclaimed to meet the contemporary needs of their society. These laws included the institution of the weekly Sabbath, providing for freedom from labor for everyone, including animals (Deut. 5:12-15); the institution of the sabbatical year, when no crops were to be planted (Lev. 25:1-7), creditors were to remit all debts, and Hebrew servants were to be freed (Deut. 15:1-18; Exod. 21:2-6; cf. Lev. 25:35-55); and the institution of Jubilee, when the land was to be redistributed again to its original households (Lev. 25:8-34; 27:16-25). Law was designed to protect the rights of all persons rather than the property rights of the privileged few.

Much of the story of Israel involves the conflict between its native egalitarian tribal covenant structure and its attempt to adjust to the foreign hierarchical structures of the city-state. Israel's prophetic leaders realized that there could be no justice in a society dominated by a centralized power politics (1 Sam. 8:4-18). Even when Israel demanded a king, its kingship was not to be "like other nations." Instead, he was to be a student of God's law, not to have a modernized army or a centralized state economics, and not to be diplomatically enmeshed with the surrounding military states and empires (Deut. 17:14-20). The king was to promote egalitarian economics by being a brother to his fellow Israelites.

With the adoption of kingship, the prophetic office proliferated under the influence of Samuel. By promoting Israel's ancient covenant traditions for the new situation, the prophets withstood the powerful economic and political pressures which were catapulting Israel toward a hierarchical, unjust society (cf. 1 Kings 21; Isa. 5:8-10; Amos 6:4-7; Mic. 3:1-8). Ezekiel was one of these promoters by proclaiming an end-time society whose leaders would be just, whose people would have a new heart and spirit and would obey covenant law. Even in this temple society, the princes would need exhortation: Enough, O princes of Israel! Put away violence and oppression, and do what is just and right. Cease the evictions of my people, says the Lord God (Ezek. 45:9). This covenantal society was to be embraced even now by the exiles in a foreign land (Ezek. 18).

The Glory of the Lord

In the book of Ezekiel, the phrase, "the glory of the Lord" (Heb.: kabod Yahweh) occurs in the three extended visions which, explicitly linked together, unite the judgment and salvation portions of the book (10:15, 20-22; 43:3). In the first vision and its aftermath, the phrase occurs three times (1:28; 3:12, 23). There it denotes the presence of Israel's cosmic Lord to mandate and empower Ezekiel as the Lord's representative (cf. "By What Authority" in TBC for 1:13:15). In the second vision, the phrase occurs eight times (8:4; 9:3; 10:4ac, 18, 19; 11:22, 23). There this Glory reappears like a thread throughout the vision, indicating to the elders that the exile is God Almighty's universal, spiritual, and moral leadership of history (cf. 10:1, 5; "Ichabod: 'The Glory Has Departed' " in TBC for 8:111:25). In the third vision, the Glory is again the key, as it returns to the new temple. It signals to the exiles that their harsh plight is a phase of God's intention to establish Israel as the exemplary temple community from which God will lead the nations.

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Ezekiel's description of the Glory (1:26-28) compares to ancient Near Eastern imagery of divinity, especially to an eighth-century B.C. ceramic of the god Ashur. "The form of the god is seen emerging from the flaming disc of the sun and appears from the waist upwards with well-defined contours. The rays and flames of the sun's disc are shown in a mixture of yellow and blue tones, and the whole is framed by the edge of the sun's disc and its rays" (Zimmerli, 1983:122; cf. ANEP, no. 536). Ezekiel's borrowing from this imagery of glory has deep roots in OT Scripture, as shown in Psalm 29, an ancient psalm with a Canaanite background. By this takeover of the imagery of Near Eastern high gods, Ezekiel's vision proclaims that the Lord alone is God. This Glory is not simply an attribute of divinity but is a revelation of God's own self.

As a priest, a main source of Ezekiel's theology of the Glory of the Lord may be found in the priestly stories of Israel's wilderness wanderings and of Sinai. In these narratives the glory of the Lord appeared to Israel, often in times of crisisat the giving of manna (Exod. 16:7-10) and communicating the law (24:15-18), at completing the tabernacle in connection with the pillar of cloud and of fire which accompanied Israel on its journeys (40:34-38), at priestly sacrifices (Lev. 9:6-24), and at various revolts against Moses and Aaron (Num. 14:10; 16:19; 20:6).

Carey C. Newman says that in Israel's royal theology, Glory came to mean God's unqualified blessing on all aspects of the kingdom of David and Solomon. In the theology of the prophets, however, this sign of approval became a sign of judgment by the withdrawal of the Glory; only beyond judgment would there be hope, the return of Glory. Newman also states that Ezekiel's call vision of the glory of the Lord became the fountainhead for Jewish speculations about the end time, and prepared the way for Paul's emphasis on the glory of Christ and the glory of God associated with Christ (Newman: 241-243; for further Jewish tradition, see 1 Enoch 14:20; 62:15-16; 102:3; 104:1; 2 Enoch 22:8-10; Test. Levi 3:4; Tobit 3:16; 12:12, 16; 2 Esdras 2:39, 45; "God, glory of" in Charlesworth, 2:954, index).

In two places Paul self-consciously echoes this glory tradition. In 2 Corinthians 3:44:6, Paul appeals to the revelation of the glory in the face of Moses at Sinai to legitimate his own apostleship. He says that all of us with unveiled facesunlike the Israelites who gazed on the glory of Moses' veiled face"seeing the glory of the Lord as though reflected in a mirror, are being transformed into the same image." In 1 Corinthians 2:8, Paul mines the wealth of the Jewish glory tradition which stemmed from Ezekiel 1:28. Paul says that he speaks not the wisdom of this age or of the rulers of this age, but God's wisdom: "None of the rulers of this age understood this; for if they had, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory." Paul sees this glory of the Lord in the face of Jesus not by exegeting it from Scripture but through his conversion and call vision on the Damascus road. Like Ezekiel, Paul saw the glory of the Lord, and this mandated his ministry to the Gentile world (cf. Newman: 243-247).

Inclusio

A literary device in which the opening and closing of a segment are the same or similar. An inclusio ties the end to the beginning by recapitulating; it forms an envelope, sandwich, or bracket around the material between. A series of inclusios may form a ring or envelope structure. Although one may not be sure of all that an inclusio may have meant for the

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original speaker or writer, it does denote unity and emphasis. Each inclusio should be carefully considered in its particular context. For examples of longer segments in the book of Ezekiel with this pattern, see notes on 3:16-21 and 33:1-9; 24:25-27 and 33:21-22; 37:26-28 and 40:143:12. For a shorter segment, see 1:1 and 3:15. [Structure of Ezekiel 1:13:15, p. 381.]

Kings of Judah

Family Chart of Last Kings (Martens, 1986:301)

Messenger Formula

Thus says the Lord God occurs nearly 130 times in the book of Ezekiel. Though commonly used of the Lord by the prophets, the formula is also used in secular contexts of humans who send official messages (Gen. 32:3-4; 2 Kings 19:9-10). The formula is closely related to the biblical definition of a prophet: the Lord's official messenger sent to communicate a divine message, a message so designated by this introductory formula (cf. Ezek. 2:4).

Recognition Formula

You/They shall know that I am the Lord occurs in the book of Ezekiel about 60 times. Besides this, there are a few related recognition statements:

They shall know that there has been a prophet among them (2:5; 33:33).

They/you shall know that I, the Lord, have spoken (5:13; 17:21)

You shall know that it was not without cause that I did all . . . (14:23).

All flesh shall know that I the Lord have drawn my sword (21:5).

You shall know that I the Lord have poured out my wrath (22:22).

They shall know that I, the Lord their God, am with them (34:30).

The nations . . . shall know that I, the Lord, have rebuilt (36:36).

You shall know that I, the Lord, have spoken and will act (37:14).

The nations shall know that . . . Israel went into captivity for their iniquity (39:23).

The formula is used of both Israel and the nations; judgments upon them both will cause them to know the God of Israel. Likewise, God's saving acts for Israel will cause both Israel and the nations to acknowledge the Lord. This acknowledgment comes not through reasoning or philosophy but by God's intervention and prophetic interpretation of historical events.

For the various nuances of meaning of this formula, the reader may refer

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to each context in which it is used. Most of those passages show that the fundamental goal of the book of Ezekiel speaks to the question of power, the recognition of Yahweh as Lord of the nations. This lesson will be learned by the collapse of all states and empires who rely upon human wisdom and violent power, by the annihilation of Gog who symbolizes this principle, and by the renewal of Israel in a renewed land, to which they relate as a covenanted, worshiping community. Through all this, Israel and the nations shall recognize that Yahweh, God of a slave people in their exodus from Egypt and of the exiles in Babylon, is the moral and spiritual leader of the nations. On this further, see Zimmerli, 1982.

Revelation Formula

The word of the Lord came to me occurs in the book of Ezekiel about 50 times and indicates Ezekiel's religious experience. Israel's prophet perceived the divine will through intuition rather than by external methods such as gazing at stars or livers. The prophets sensed this intuition not as welling up from within them but as given from without; God was giving a revelatory word. This word of the Lord tended to become an independent entity, mediating between God and the prophet. This is part of the background for understanding the Logos doctrine (John 1:1).

Son of Man (RSV; NRSV: Mortal).

This term occurs in the book of Ezekiel over 90 times. In the Psalms it parallels the term "human beings" (8:4) and often has the meaning of mortal as contrasted with God. In Ezekiel the phrase designates the prophet's lowly humanity in service of the One enthroned over the universe. In Daniel 7:13, however, the Aramaic phrase bar enos * (RSV: "son of man") is used in an exalted sense. Some scholars identify this "son of man" with the angel Michael (ABD, 2:32, 35). The kingdom is taken away from the four beasts which arise out of the sea and is given to "one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven'' (NIV). Jesus uses this phrase of himself both in the lowly (Luke 9:58) and in the exalted sense, coming as judge (Mark 13:26; 14:62 || Matt. 26:64; Gardner: 383). The phrase is applied to the resurrected Lord only in the exalted sense (Acts 7:56; Rev. 1:13; also used for an angel in Rev. 14:14-15).

Spirit

The Hebrew term occurs in the book of Ezekiel over 50 times and is usually translated spirit or wind (ruah*). Only in context can one discern whether it designates the human or divine spirit or some other entity such as breath or four winds of the earth (cf. chap. 37). The human spirit animates the human body. The Spirit of God is the manifestation of holy power which effects the work of God in the world.

Structure Of Ezekiel 1:13:15 (RSV)

The chart on the next page shows the chiastic structure of this section. Note the inclusio of Ezekiel 1:1-3 and 3:14b-15, forming a bracket or envelope around the material. [Inclusio, p. 379.] Inside this bracket are shorter brackets: the chariot vision is repeated (1:4-28c and 3:12-14a), and between the chariot visions are the repeated commissions (1:28d2:7 and 3:4-11). At the center of these brackets (or rings) is the SCROLL VISION (2:83:3).

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Chart Showing Structure of Ezekiel 1:13:15 (RSV)

Time, event, place, person, 1:(1,) 2-3

Chariot Vision 1:4-28c

Commission, 1:28d2:7

And he said to me, "Son of man, stand . . . and

I will speak" (2:1).

And he said to me, "Son of man, I will send you" (2:3).

"And you, son of man, be not afraid" (2:6).

SCROLL VISION, 2:83:3

"Son of man, . . . eat" (2:8); "eat" (3:1); "eat" (3:3).

Commission, 3:4-11

And he said to me, "Son of man, go . . . speak" (3:4).

Moreover he said to me, "Son of man, . . . receive . . .

Hear . . . go . . . say" (3:10-11).

Chariot Vision, 3:12-14a

Event, person, people, place, 3:14b-15

Succession of Prophets in JudgesKings (12:1-20)

Century

Prophet

Text

Spoke to

Message

12th

Deborah

Judg. 4-5

Barak/Israel

Positive

Prophet

Judg. 6:7-10

Israel

Negative

11th

Samuel

1 Sam. 3; 7-12; 15-16; 19; 25:1

King/Israel

Neg./Pos.

Company

1 Sam. 10:5-13; 19:20-24

10th

Nathan

2 Sam. 7; 12; 1 Kings 1

King/Queen

Pos./Neg.

Gad

1 Sam. 22:5; 2 Sam. 24:11-18

King

Pos./Neg.

Ahijah

1 Kings 11:29-40; 14:2

Kings

Negative

Shemaiah

1 Kings 12:22-24

King

Negative

Man of God

1 Kings 13; 2 Kings 23:17-18

King

Negative

Prophet

1 Kings 13:11-32

Prophet

Negative

9th

Jehu

1 Kings 16:1-7

King

Negative

Elijah

1 Kings 17-19; 21; 2 Kings 1

Kings/Queen

Negative

Prophets

1 Kings 18:4, 13; 19:1, 10, 14

Prophet

1 Kings 20:13-22

King

Positive

Man of God

1 Kings 20:28

King

Positive

Prophet

1 Kings 20:35-43

King

Negative

Micaiah

1 Kings 22

King/Prophets

Negative

Elisha

2 Kings 2-8; 13:14-21

Kings, etc.

Pos./Neg.

Company

2 Kings 2:3-5, 15-18; 6:1-6

Prophet

2 Kings 9:1-13

Kings

Negative

8th

Jonah

2 Kings 14:25

King

Positive

Isaiah

2 Kings 19-20

King

Pos./Neg.

7th

Prophets

2 Kings 21:10-15

King

Negative

Huldah

2 Kings 22:14-20

King

Positive

Prophets

2 Kings 23:2 (cf. 2 Kings 17:13, 23; 24:2)

Page 383

Worship:

Celebrating the Story and Covenanting

The Bible is made up of law, prophecy and wisdom, Gospels, and letters. But story dominates and provides context for all of these (cf. Lind, 1990:233-237). This is especially true of worship scenes like Joshua 24, scenes which punctuate the story line throughout the Bible (cf. Deut. 6:20-25; 26:1-15; Neh. 8-9; Ps. 105; Acts 13:14-52; Rev. 1:9-11). In the OT the story line of Israel predominates. In the worship scene at Shechem, Joshua gives a synopsis of Israel's story, from the ancestors who lived "beyond the [Euphrates] River" and served other gods, to contemporary Israel, living in the land (Josh. 24).

In the NT the story line of Jesus is dominant. In a worship scene at Caesarea, Peter proclaims a synopsis of the story of Jesus' ministry:

That message spread throughout Judea, beginning in Galilee after the baptism that John announced: how God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power; how he went about doing good and healing all who were oppressed by the devil. . . . We are witnesses to all that he did. . . . They put him to death by hanging him on a tree; but God raised him on the third day and allowed him to appear. (Acts 10:37-40)

I will lift out three features of the biblical story as it was used in worship settings throughout the Bible, especially as these features are found in the worship scene of Joshua 24.

First, this story tells of a personal relationship between God and people. In the time of Abraham, the great gods seemed to have grown distant and inaccessible. Humans felt the need for a personal God, one who would relate closely to the individual and would represent a person's needs to the great gods. Such a God appeared to Abraham and Sarah. But this personal One of Israel was different from all others in that this God is personal not only in relation to the individual, but above all in relation to the nation. The story is a personal one of God and people, a corporate, individuated body, a covenant story which eventuates in land (Josh. 24:13).

Though not so obvious, this personal story of a corporate body is characteristic also of the NT. The stories of Jesus in the Gospels tell not merely of a private person but also of one who is Lord of all. Jesus is leader of the corporate individuated body, the church. The stories of his ministry show the personal way his lordship takes in leading the world to God. He announced his leadership program in a synagogue worship service at Nazareth, a ministry to the poor, the captives, the blind and oppressed (Luke 4:16-30).

With the advent of the call of the God of Israel to Abraham and Sarah, humanity is summoned to forsake the gods representing impersonal powers of economics and violent politics, and to serve the personal God of the story. Those who worship the God of this story cannot also worship wealth or Caesar (Matt. 6:24; Acts 10:36).

Second, this biblical story demands individual decision. The story is of a corporate people, Israel, but its demand is for individual decision:

Now therefore revere the Lord, and serve him in sincerity and in faithfulness. . . . If you are unwilling to serve the Lord, choose this day whom you will serve, whether the gods your ancestors served in the region beyond the River or the gods of the Amorites in whose land you are living; but as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord. (Josh. 24:14-15)

Page 384

The story enlarges the possibilities for choice. Israel might choose the gods of their ancestors before Abraham; or they might choose the contemporary gods of the nations around them. But this is not much of a choice, for these gods were essentially the same, representing the impersonal powers of the past and present. They involved no real choice, for they could be reconfigured into a common pantheon. Yahweh, however, demands an either-or choice between these representatives of impersonal powers and the personal God who frees from these powers.

A third trait of the story celebrated in worship is its intricate connection with law and ethics. Joshua challenged the people: "You cannot serve the Lord, for he is a holy God. He is a jealous God" (24:19). "So Joshua made a covenant with the people that day, and made statutes and ordinances for them at Shechem" (24:25). The recital of the story of God's love ends with "Now therefore," calling the people to respond to grace by obedience to law, to Torah (24:14). Thus Paul ends a recital of God's grace, read in worship settings of NT churches: "I appeal to you, therefore . . . (Rom. 12:1).

Protestant tradition has often denigrated law; its mood is measured by the song, "Free from the law, O happy condition!" The mood of those who know law as response to story, however, is measured by the Psalm, "Oh, how I love your law! It is my meditation all day long" (Ps. 119:97). This link of law with story is characteristic even of the Ten Commandments. They begin with story, identifying who God is: "I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of . . . the house of slavery." The proper response to God's release from state bondage is, "Thou shalt have no other gods before me" nor worship them (Exod. 20:2-6). This God of freedom alone is to be the authority for life; worship of all other gods leads to bondage.

I have discussed the biblical story's personal corporate character, its demand for individual decision, and its unity with law and ethics. I close with a reference to the church calendar. Many congregations follow the cycle of the church calendar; this calendar provides unity in contrast to the cycle of our national holidays, which divide us. The church calendar is rooted in the biblical worship calendar (cf. Exod. 23:14-17; Lev. 23; Deut. 16). Beginning in the fall, the Feast of Booths (Tabernacles) celebrates Israel's new beginning in the wilderness, a beginning recapitulated by ancient Israel, Jesus, and John the Baptist (Matt. 3; John 7). This festive season includes a celebration of the New Year (Lev. 23:24) and the Day of Atonement (23:27).

Near to our Christmas, the Feast of Dedication (Hanukkah), not found in the OT, was celebrated by Jesus when he declared his unity with the Father (John 10:22-39; remembering rededication of temple in 164 B.C.; 1 Macc. 4:52-59). In the spring, the Passover was celebrated, commemorating the exodus and death and resurrection of Jesus (cf. John 1:29; 6:1-15; 1 Cor. 5:6-8; Rev. 5:6-10). Fifty days after Easter is the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), associated by the synagogue with the giving of the law at Sinai, and by the church with the fresh advent of the Spirit (Acts 2). The NT church celebrated these festivals in the background of the OT story; story interpreted story (cf. "Story Shaping Story" in TLC for 44:447:12).

The Gospel of John suggests the flexibility of the believing church to adapt the story to suit communal need. This writer places the story of Jesus washing the disciples' feet at the approximate place where the synoptic Gospels place the institution of communion. Such a resolution of the disciples' quarrel also illustrates the unity of ethics with story, of sociology with theology, a unity expressed in worship.

Page 385

Page 386

Ezekiel's Temple, Courts, Walls, and Gates

Adapted from William Hugh Brownlee, "The Book of Ezekiel." in the Interpreter's One-Volume Commentary on the Bible, ed. Charles M.

Laymon (Nashville: Abingdon. 1971), 435. Based on Ezekiel 40-42. The long cubit is about 1.75 feet. The common cubit is about 1.5 feet.

The measuring reed of 6 long cubits was about 10.5 feet long. See Ezekiel 40:5.

Page 387

Altar of Sacrifice

Adapted from Frank E. Gabelein, ed., Expositor's Bible Commentary, vol. 6

(Grand Rapids: Zondervan. 1986), 972. Based on Ezekiel 43:13-27.

Page 388

Plan of the Temple Gates

Adapted from John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., The Bible

Knowledge Commentary, vol. 1 (Wheaton, Ill.: Victor Books, Scripture

Press, 1985), 1305. Based on Ezekiel 40:5-27, east, north, and south gates.

Page 389

Adapted from Aharoni: map 166; and John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., The Bible Knowledge Commentary,

vol. 1 (Wheaton, Ill.: Victor Books, Scripture Press, 1985), 1314. Based on Ezekiel 45:1-9; 47:13-48:35.

Page 390

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Index of Scripture Quotations and Allusions in the Complete Writings of Menno Simons. Photocopy. Goshen, Ind.: Mennonite Historical Society.

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Page 396

SELECTED RESOURCES

Aharoni, Yohanan, and Michael Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. 3d ed. New York: Macmillan, 1993. Provides 264 maps of settings from the primeval geography of Genesis to the geography of the book of Acts. With each map is a short text tracing detailed movements of participants or describing the period.

Blenkinsopp, Joseph, Ezekiel. Louisville: John Knox, 1990. A "Bible commentary for teaching and preaching." Deals thematically with the text rather than pursuing verse-by-verse approach.

Freedman, David Noel, ed. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday, 1992. This important six-volume work "reflects a generation of development and changing perspectives in changing scholarship." It should be available to every minister and teacher, though it is not easy reading.

Greenberg, Moshe. Ezekiel 1-20. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983. Though thoroughly acquainted with form-critical method, Greenberg breaks with the past, emphasizes "holistic interpretation," and stresses literary structure and thematic development. Because all Near Eastern literature is repetitive and does not necessarily correspond to Western logic, Greenberg attributes nearly all of the text to Ezekiel. I rate this the best of all student commentaries on Ezekiel.

Howie, Carl G. The Book of Ezekiel. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1961. A fine commentary, popularly written. Howie especially contributes understanding on the dates of the book of Ezekiel.

Matties, Gordon H. Ezekiel 18 and the Rhetoric of Moral Discourse. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990. This work is a study of ethics in

Page 397

the book of Ezekiel, using chapter 18 as a port of entry. His analysis includes a sociological dimension which lays out the practical worldly concern of Ezekiel's theology.

Smith, Daniel L. The Religion of the Landless. Bloomington, Ind.: Meyer-Stone, 1989. Smith's thesis is that one can understand Ezekiel best by asking questions of the text which arise from refugee communities like that of Ezekiel's. He gains new insights from a study of four such communities: the Japanese-American internment camps of World War II, the Bantustans of South Africa, the slave societies of pre-civil war United States, and the Bikini Islands resettlement in the 1950s to make way for the U.S. atomic tests. His introduction alone is worth the price of the book.

Zimmerli, Walther. Ezekiel. Vols. 1-2. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979-83. These two volumes mark the climax of nearly a century of the form-critical method, now applied to the book of Ezekiel. Though Zimmerli sees a considerable portion of the text as written by Ezekiel's disciples, from the perspective of the history of form criticism, he is conservative. Readers need not be bothered by this point of view if they consider that Jesus left all of his teaching to be written by his disciples.

Page 398

INDEX OF ANCIENT TEXTS

(Other than Ezekiel)

Old Testament

Genesis

1, 237

1-11, 136, 232

1:2, 225, 239, 250

1:26-27, 31

2-3, 237

2:7, 43, 149, 298

2:9, 331

2:10-14, 351

2:14, 230

3, 237, 239

3:4, 240

3:6, 236

3:24, 238, 331

4:10, 44, 187, 207

4:15, 82

4:23, 179

5, 28, 151

5:2, 237

6:1-4, 195, 255

6:9, 120

6:11, 72, 74, 80, 237

7:1, 120

7:11, 250

8:2, 251

8:209:17, 74

9:6, 184

9:8-17, 32

9:15, 307

10, 232

10:2, 230, 315

10:2-3, 315

10:3, 230

10:4, 229-230

10:7, 230

10:11, 230

10:15-17, 131

10:15-19, 131

10:22, 230

10:27, 230

11:1-9, 161

11:2, 287

11:4c, 287

11:4d, 287

11:26-32, 230

12-25, 195

12:1, 285, 287

12:1-3, 72

12:2a, 287

12:2bc, 287

15:5, 267

15:7-12, 284

15:17-18, 284

15:18-21, 267

17:8, 172

17:22-24, 181

18:17-19, 87

18:17-33, 34

18:19, 150-151, 276

18:22-33, 82

18:23, 13

19:5-11, 134

19:9, 285

19:30-38, 219

20:1, 285

20:7, 83, 115

21:15, 131

21:23, 285

21:31-32, 167

21:34, 285

22:1-14, 170

23:10, 131

25-36, 195

25:13, 230

25:1933:17, 282

25:25, 282

26:3, 285

28:4, 172

28:10-17, 171

29:1-4, 217

29:32-35, 356

30:1-13, 356

30:22-24, 356

31:19, 180

31:34-35, 180

32:3, 230

32:3-4, 33, 380

34:23-24, 181

35:14, 345

35:16-26, 358

35:23, 358-359

35:24-25, 359

35:25, 359

35:26, 358-359

Page 399

35:27, 285

36:1, 219

36:2, 194

36:7, 172

37-50, 195

37:1, 172

37:2, 283

37:5-11, 195

41:45, 248

41:50, 248

41:51-52, 356

46:20, 248

47:9, 172

47:13-25, 195

48:8-22, 354

48:15, 275

49:10, 181

49:24, 275

Exodus

1, 41

1-15, 59

1:13, 274

1:28, 41

2:23, 179

3-4, 25

3:8, 167

3:10, 33, 107

3:11, 38, 55

3:12, 209

3:13, 38

3:13-15, 167, 299

3:13-22, 20

3:14, 214

3:16-17, 107

3:18, 324

4:10, 38

4:11, 38

4:21, 36

5:1, 107

5:1-3, 324

5:2, 214

6:2, 110, 167

6:4, 172

6:6, 86, 248

6:7, 119

7:5, 168, 214

7:9, 244

8:10, 168

8:22, 168

9:3, 297

9:14, 168

9:16, 174

9:29, 168

10:21, 253

12:1-13:16, 346

12:2-3, 326

12:6, 346

12:7, 346

12:7-13, 82

12:23, 81

12:38, 131

12:40, 54

13:2, 170

13:13-16, 170

14, 324

14-15, 312

14:2, 245

14:4, 168, 214

14:13-14, 82

14:14, 318

14:18, 168, 214

14:21, 109

15:1-12, 18

15:1-18, 50, 300, 324, 352

15:1-21, 18, 24

15:3, 178

15:12, 108

15:13, 86

15:13-17a, 18

15:14-15, 214

15:17, 324

15:17b, 19

15:18, 324

16:7-10, 379

16:18, 275, 377

16:28, 101

18:9-10, 71, 275

18:20, 342

19, 29

19-24, 142

19:4, 153

19:4-5, 167

19:4-6, 56, 153

19:5, 153

19:6, 153, 305

19:21-25, 342

2023, 153, 169

20:1, 341

20:1-6, 172

20:2, 154, 168

20:2-17, 153

20:3, 154

20:3-5, 58

20:3-6, 150

20:4, 187

20:5, 78, 168, 283

20:5-6, 63

20:5b-6, 154

20:6, 154

20:8-11, 169, 188

20:12, 187

20:13, 187

20:18-21, 341

20:22, 117, 341

20:22-25, 172

20:2223:33, 153

20:26, 335, 384

21-22, 264

21:2-6, 43, 378

21:10, 150

21:26-27, 155

22:18, 111

22:21, 118, 150, 355

22:22, 187

22:25, 150

22:26, 150

22:28, 158, 276, 279

22:29b, 170

23:4-5, 265

23:9, 118, 187, 355

23:14-17, 384

23:15, 346

23:16, 347

23:26, 284

24:1, 79

24:1-2, 347

24:3, 153

24:3-8, 153, 277

24:5, 153

24:6, 153, 308

24:7, 153

24:8, 153, 308

24:9, 79

24:15-18, 336, 379

24:16-17, 31

25ff., 171

25-40, 324

25:2, 357

25:8-9, 305

Page 400

25:9, 333, 335-336

25:18-21, 331

25:18-22, 30

25:23-30, 331

27:9-19, 347

27:16, 328

28:2, 342

28:17-20, 237

28:42, 81

29:10, 305

29:12, 334

29:27, 357

29:36-37, 335

29:38-42, 348

30:10, 346

32-34, 168

32:1-6, 71

32:4, 117

32:7, 36

32:9-10, 168

32:11-14, 107, 168

32:12, 174

32:21-24, 117

32:30, 117

32:31-34, 190

32:32, 83

32:35, 117

33:3, 167

33:11, 172

34, 195

34:14, 90, 283

34:17-26, 153

34:18-20, 346

34:22, 347

34:25, 346

35:17, 328

35:3040:33, 336

38:15, 328

38:18, 132

39:28, 342

39:40, 328

Leviticus

1-7, 329

1:3-4, 329

2:1, 342

2:1-3, 331, 335

2:3, 349, 384

2:4, 343

2:5, 53

2:10, 349

2:14-16, 342

3, 335

3:16-17, 342

4, 346

5:146:7, 329

6:4, 150

6:14-18, 349

6:24-30, 349

7:1-9, 349

7:11-18, 335

7:14, 357

7:24-25, 343

7:28-36, 335

8:2, 345

8:10, 345

8:12, 345

8:17, 335

9:6-24, 379

10:10, 342

10:12-20, 331

10:16-20, 349

13:45, 208

14:1-9, 346

14:52-53, 346

15, 289, 291

15:1, 117

15:16-19, 289

15:16-24, 71

15:32-33, 289

16-26, 153

16:1, 117

16:15-19, 335

16:16-17, 346

16:22, 54

16:29, 118

16:33, 346

17, 118, 172

17-26, 188

17:1, 117

17:1-2, 341

17:3, 117

17:8, 117

17:10, 117

17:10-12, 342

17:13, 117, 207

18:18, 195

18:21, 174

19:3, 187

19:16, 188

19:18, 118, 218

19:30, 89

19:33-34, 118, 187

19:35-36, 344

19:36, 345

20:2, 119

20:3, 314

20:5-6, 314

20:10, 134, 188

20:11, 188

20:12, 188

20:17, 188

20:24, 167

20:27, 111

21:1, 318

21:1-15, 342

21:5, 55

21:11, 318

22:8, 343

22:10-16, 28

22:23, 348

22:29, 335

23:4-14, 346

23:13, 345

23:17, 343

23:18, 345

23:24, 384

23:27, 384

23:34, 347

23:37, 345

23:39, 346

24:5-9, 331, 342

25, 348

25:1-7, 378

25:8-17, 326

25:8-34, 378

25:9, 265, 326

25:25-28, 70

25:29-32, 86

25:35-55, 378

25:36, 188

25:43, 274

25:46, 274

25:48, 86

25:53, 274

25:55, 274

26:1, 79

26:2, 89

26:6, 277

26:12, 119

26:17-45, 53

26:21-26, 120

26:33, 169

Page 401

27:16-25, 378

27:17-24, 348

27:21, 343

27:32, 172

Numbers

4:7, 345

5:15, 343

8:7, 291

9:14, 118

11-14, 169

11:16, 79

13:22, 248

13:23, 124

13:27, 167

13:32, 284

13:32-33, 255

14:10, 379

14:13-16, 168

14:14, 172

14:18-19, 54

14:20-25, 172

14:26-35, 169

14:34-35, 54

15:19, 356

15:20, 357

15:21, 343

15:27, 329

16, 169

16:19, 379

17:2-10, 303

18:1, 54

18:14, 343

18:25-30, 343

20:6, 379

21, 169

21:18, 245

2224, 107

23:9, 21

24:10, 107

25, 169

25:12, 276

27:17, 274

28, 346

28:9, 345

28:9-15, 347

28:11-15, 345

28:11-28, 348

28:16-25, 346

31:2, 218

31:52, 357

32:6-15, 169

32:13, 285

32:23, 265

32:34-38, 217

33:52, 79

34:1-12, 354

34:8, 355

35:4, 95

36:4, 348

Deuteronomy

2:3-5, 283

2:10, 255

2:15, 297

3:9, 229

3:11, 255

3:17, 350

4:34, 172, 187

5:1, 341

5:6-21, 291

5:9-10, 63

5:12-15, 378

5:15, 172

6:3, 167

6:4, 119

6:4-8, 65

6:20-25, 383

6:21-23, 135

7:1, 124, 214, 216

7:6, 167

7:17, 124

7:25-26, 78, 130, 167

8:8, 253

8:15, 34

9:1-2, 124

9:2, 255

10:9, 342

12, 63, 172

1226, 153

12:2-14, 170

12:6, 357

12:17-18, 348

12:29-31, 170

13:13-15, 78, 167

13:15, 130

14:2, 167

15, 150

15:1-18, 378

15:4, 377

15:9, 80

15:11, 377

15:15, 64

16, 384

16:1-8, 346

16:1-17, 345

16:10, 348

16:12, 64

16:13, 347

17:4, 78, 130, 167

17:8-13, 342

17:14, 217

17:14-20, 333, 378

17:1418:22, 105

17:15, 341

17:18-20, 306

18:2, 342

18:5, 167

18:9-14, 180

18:9-22, 111

18:15, 98

18:15-22, 180

18:22, 205, 225

20:5-6, 239

21:5, 167

22:20-27, 134

23:13-14, 55

26:1-15, 383

26:4-5, 347

26:5-9, 167

26:5-11, 135

26:8, 108

27:1, 341

27:11-26, 153

27:15, 172

27:25, 188

28, 153

28:13, 57

28:36, 169

28:53-57, 57

28:64, 169

29:11, 341

29:17, 64

30:19, 167

30:19-20, 153

31:9-13, 378

31:12, 341

31:14-29, 43

32, 50, 300

32:4, 234

32:8-9, 220

32:15, 234

Page 402

32:18, 234

32:30-31, 234

32:35, 215, 218

32:37, 234

32:39, 119, 298, 300

32:43, 216

32:51, 355

33:7-10, 117

33:10, 342

33:17, 247

34:1-8, 286

Joshua

2:19, 265

5:6, 167

6:4-13, 265

7:10-12, 82

7:10-26, 82

9:3-27, 341

10:11, 109, 317

11:6, 318

11:9, 318

11:21-22, 255

13:1-33, 348, 356

13:5, 355

13:8-32, 356

13:14, 356

13:17-19, 217

14-19, 351

14:119:51, 342

14:3-4, 342

14:4, 356

15:4, 355

15:47, 355

18:7, 342

19:24-29, 225

23, 43

24, 279, 383

24:2, 131

24:2-13, 135

24:13, 383

24:14, 384

24:14-15, 383

24:19, 58, 283, 384

24:25, 384

Judges

1:8, 177

2:11-21, 73

2:11-23, 69

2:15, 297

3:14-15, 127

3:27, 71, 265

4-5, 382

5:4-5, 317

6:5, 217

6:7-10, 73, 382

6:12-14, 96

7:20, 180, 183

7:22, 317

9:7-15, 127

9:8-15, 161, 250

9:9, 251

9:11, 251

9:13, 251

9:15, 161

9:37, 316

11:12-28, 217

11:29-40, 170

11:38-39, 79

14:12-19, 140

15:4, 107

16:21, 95

17:2, 140

18:7, 316

18:27, 316

20:1, 245

Ruth

1:17, 254

4:6-7, 86

4:7-8, 284

4:10, 108

1 Samuel

1-3, 171

1:19, 162

1:25, 162

1:27, 162, 165

2:1, 247

2:6, 300

2:6-8, 181

3, 382

3:1, 121

3:10-14, 73

4:4, 30, 331

4:12-22, 88

4:17, 208

5:2-5, 33

5:6, 123, 297

6:4, 208

7-12, 382

7:3-11, 133

8-12, 146

8, 157, 235

8:4-5, 171

8:4-18, 378

8:5, 217

8:7, 163, 165

8:7-8, 36

8:7-22, 163

8:10-18, 344

8:14, 349

8:18, 275

8:20, 123, 165

9:5-21, 116

9:7-8, 111

9:8, 123

9:1510:13, 39

9:16-17, 179

10:1, 179

10:5-6, 29

10:5-13, 382

10:18, 275

10:25, 235, 306, 333

11:2, 95

11:12, 102

12, 43

12:6-18, 165

12:7-11, 198

12:7-18, 130

12:12, 165

12:12-13, 198

14:16, 264

14:36-37, 180

14:44, 43

15-16, 382

15:10, 42

15:35, 121

16:2, 121

17, 255

19, 382

19:20-24, 382

20:5, 348

21:6, 331

22:5, 382

22:7, 349

22:14-19, 121

23:9-21, 180

25:1, 382

26:15-16, 45

28:6, 115, 121, 166, 180

Page 403

28:9, 111

28:15-25, 121

30:7-8, 180

31:1-13, 133

31:4, 121

2 Samuel

1:17-27, 158, 162

3:31, 71

6:6-11, 349

7, 382

7:4, 42

7:7, 274

11:3, 131

12, 382

12:1-14, 73

12:5-6, 264

12:9, 160, 164

13:34, 45

15:10, 265

18:24-27, 45, 264

19:4-5, 93

20:25, 329

21:16-22, 255

22:16, 109

22:43, 65

24, 170

24:1, 119

24:11, 42

24:11-18, 382

1 Kings

1, 341, 382

1:50-53, 334

2:28-29, 86

2:28-35, 82

2:35, 329, 341

4, 132

5:9d, 225

6, 326, 328

6-7, 333

6:2-3, 330

6:5-6, 330

6:16-17, 330

6:23-28, 81, 331

6:23-36, 30, 330

7:2, 178

7:13-47, 225

7:33, 30

8:6, 84

8:41-43, 341

9:15, 328

9:15-22, 225

9:26-27, 223

9:26-28, 225, 231

10:1-2, 230

10:11, 225

10:15, 230

10:17, 178

10:21, 178

10:22-29, 231

11:5, 225

11:15-16, 164

11:23-28, 225

11:27, 107

11:29-40, 225, 382

12:11, 34

12:22-24, 382

13, 382

13:11-32, 382

13:20, 42

13:30, 106, 274

14:2, 382

16:1, 42

16:1-7, 382

16:34, 170

17-18, 226

17-19, 382

17:1, 79

17:2, 42

17:8, 42

17:8-16, 122

18, 171

18:1, 42

18:4, 382

18:19, 78

18:26, 108

18:29, 348

18:30-35, 63

18:31, 306

18:40, 82

18:46, 37, 297

19:1, 382

19:10, 82, 382

19:12, 30, 226

19:14, 382

19:18, 82

20:6, 208

20:13-22, 382

20:26-30, 218

20:28, 382

20:35-43, 382

21, 153, 343-344, 349, 351, 355, 378, 382

21:17, 42

21:20-24, 73

21:27-29, 246

21:28, 42

21:29, 225

22, 112, 382

22:10-12, 112

22:19, 112-113

22:19-23, 119, 170

22:49, 223

2 Kings

1, 382

1:1, 33

1:4, 43

1:20, 33

2-8, 382

2:3-5, 382

2:15-18, 382

2:19, 284

3:9-20, 107

3:15, 268, 297

4:23, 348

5, 122

6:1-6, 382

6:8-10, 43

6:26-31, 57

6:32, 108, 116

6:327:2, 88

8:7-15, 230

9:1-13, 382

9:17-20, 45

10:30, 170

11:12, 180

13:14-21, 382

13:15-19, 180

14:25, 355, 382

15:19, 196

15:19-20, 195

16:3, 133, 170

16:5-9, 133

16:7, 196

16:7-9, 200

16:14, 81

16:15, 348

17:7-20, 69

17:13, 97, 382

17:17, 133, 170

17:23, 382

Page 404

17:24-26, 160

18:4, 293

18:7, 33

18:7-19:36, 230

18:1319:37, 201

18:19, 42

18:21, 245

19-20, 382

19:3, 42

19:9-10, 33, 380

19:20, 28

19:32-35, 201

19:35-36, 201

20:1, 246

20:4, 42

21, 341

21:1-9, 78

21:6, 170

21:10-15, 382

22:3-14, 79

22:11, 60

22:14-20, 382

22:20, 254

23, 62

23:2, 382

23:4, 293

23:5-20, 63

23:6, 78

23:8, 171

23:10, 133, 170

23:11, 80

23:14-16, 64

23:15-20, 306

23:17-18, 382

23:30-34, 159

23:31, 160

23:34, 160

24-25, 28, 141

24:2, 382

24:8-15, 142

24:8-16, 45

24:8-17, 377

24:10-13, 160

24:10-17, 28

24:12, 160

24:14-16, 85, 142

24:15, 160

24:1725:7, 94

24:17, 141

24:18, 142, 160

25:1, 205

25:2, 223

25:3, 248-249

25:3-4, 190, 252

25:4, 95

25:4-7, 93

25:7, 95

25:8, 223

25:8-9, 217

25:8-11, 266

25:8-12, 96, 267

25:9, 177

25:13-17, 71

25:18-21, 85, 96

25:19, 96

25:22, 79

25:27-30, 160

1 Chronicles

1:5-6, 315

1:8, 315

3:21, 85

5:4, 315

9:33, 329

15:28, 265

17:6, 274

21:1, 119, 170

28:2, 333

2 Chronicles

2, 225

2:10, 225

8:17-18, 225

9:18, 333

28:18, 133

29:28, 329

33:6, 133

33:9, 57

34:4, 64

34:6-7, 306

36, 28

36:9-10, 377

36:21, 348

Ezra

2:62, 108

2:63, 121

4:14, 335

7:9, 266

9, 165

9:8, 64

Nehemiah

5:15-18, 344

6:1, 107

8-9, 383

9:6-37, 135

10:22, 85

Esther

4:11, 303

5:2, 303

8:4, 303

Job

1:1, 120

1:7, 284

14:7-12, 300

16:18, 207

30:19, 102

38:1, 29

Psalm

7:12-13, 31

9:15-16, 160

14:1-2, 107

15, 153, 341

17:8, 250

18, 29

18:10, 30, 81, 331

23, 275

23:2, 275

24, 220, 335

24:3-4, 153

25:7, 152

29, 379

30:2-3, 300

30:3, 225

31:13, 283

32, 78

35:7, 160

35:19-21, 217

36:7, 250

45:12-15, 141

46:4, 351

47:1, 65

48, 327

48:4-8, 315

49:12, 102

51:10, 294

51:15-17, 335

56, 78

57:1, 250

58:2, 237

63:7, 250

63:10, 107

Page 405

68:24-27, 329, 348

71:20, 225

72:10, 230

72:15, 230

74:12-14, 259

74:13-14, 244, 252

78, 50, 135, 165, 167, 169

78:7, 188

78:11, 188

78:12, 248

78:17, 78

78:32-39, 188

78:35, 188

78:38, 346

78:42, 188

78:43, 248

78:49, 81

78:67-72, 88

80:1, 275

80:7-19, 126

80:12, 126

80:14, 126

82, 59

88, 254, 299

91:1, 250

91:13, 252

105, 383

106, 165

106:7-8, 175

106:8, 168

106:19-23, 191

106:23, 83, 107

106:26-27, 169

119:97, 384

119:103, 35

119:108, 335

120:5, 230

121:1, 171

121:1-2, 63, 198

125:2, 327

132:17, 247

137, 268

137:1-2, 28

139, 254

139:7-10, 299

146, 150

Proverbs

1:3, 265

3:1, 265

10:18, 283

10:26, 149

11:1, 345

16:11, 345

20:22, 218

20:23, 345

24:29, 218

26:27, 160

29:18, 338

Ecclesiastes

12:13-14, 122

Isaiah

1:13-14, 348

1:22, 188

1:25, 188

2, 65

2:1-4, 144

2:2, 144

2:2-4, 245, 327

2:4, 318

3:20, 208

3:24, 71

3:24-26, 231

4:1-4, 173

4:5, 237

5:1-7, 123, 126, 268

5:8, 274, 349

5:8-10, 378

6, 28

6-8, 200

6:5, 37

6:5-8, 35

6:6, 83

6:8, 33

6:9-13, 36

6:10, 92

78, 97

7-8, 196

7:4, 316

7:4-9, 82

7:6, 200

7:9b, 200

7:10-17, 209

7:17ff., 230

8:1, 303

8:1-4, 209

8:3, 209

8:6-7, 200, 350

8:7, 200

8:11, 297

8:16, 35

8:16-17, 205

9:13-17, 189

9:18-19, 182

10:5, 181, 183, 246, 249, 256

10:5-14, 258

10:12, 182

10:16-19, 182

10:22, 225

10:24, 70

10:33-34, 124, 141

11:1, 145

11:1-9, 145

11:9, 145

13:6-16, 73

14:3-23, 240

14:5, 70

14:12-14, 240

14:13, 327

14:25, 317

17:10, 124

18:1-2, 247

19:11, 248

19:13, 248

20, 60

20:1-6, 200

20:2-4, 60

20:6, 200

21:1-10, 268

21:6-10, 46, 264

21:13-17, 230

26:19, 300-301

26:21b, 207

27:1, 244

27:9, 346

28:7, 112

29:2, 353

30:1-5, 133, 142, 197, 200

30:3-5, 95

30:4, 248

30:10, 45

30:10-11, 112

30:12-13, 190

30:15, 316

30:15-17, 102

31:1-3, 97, 133, 142, 197, 201

Page 406

31:4-5, 201

32:17, 316

33:15, 153

34:5-17, 218

36-37, 201

36:6, 143, 202, 245

37:6, 170

37:7, 182

37:9, 247

37:12, 230

37:23, 170

37:29, 160

37:33-36, 201

37:36, 81

37:36-37, 201

38:4, 42

40-55, 38, 59

40:15, 146

41:8, 238

42:1-4, 22, 59, 306

43:15-17, 352

43:16-19, 54

44:1-2, 238

44:21, 238

44:28, 246

45:4, 238

48:20, 238

49:1-6, 22

50:4-11, 22

51:3, 230

51:9-10, 250

51:17, 198

51:22-23, 198

52:8, 46, 264

52:1353:12, 22

53, 22, 35, 54, 279

53:4-5, 22

53:12, 22

54:9, 120

54:10, 276

55:1, 274

55:10-11, 298

55:12, 217

56:3, 119

58:9b-12, 190

60:6, 230

60:7, 230

60:13, 333

61:1-2, 348

61:1-3, 327

61:3, 208

63:5, 34

66:1, 333

66:19, 230

Jeremiah

1, 25

1:6, 55, 60

1:7, 33, 35

1:10, 292

1:11, 29

1:14, 81, 119

1:17-19, 36

2, 65

2:2, 33, 194

2:2-3, 168

2:5b-6a, 201

2:8, 342

2:16, 248

2:17-18, 202

2:21, 127

2:23-25, 102

2:36-37, 202

3:6-10, 194

3:6-14, 134, 194, 306

3:24, 133

4:6, 81, 256, 313, 315

5:1, 34, 60

5:4, 236

5:21, 92

5:23, 291

5:30-31, 113

6:14-15, 113

6:17, 269

6:20, 230

6:22, 176

6:26, 231

6:27-30, 188

7:23, 119

7:24, 291

7:31, 133, 170

8:1-3, 189

9:10-11, 162

10:9, 230

12:10-12, 127

12:14-17, 245

13, 60

14:2, 115

14:7, 168

14:11-12, 53, 115

14:11-13, 83

14:12, 115

14:13-16, 113

15:1, 53, 83, 115, 151, 191

15:8, 109

15:10, 109

15:15-18, 210

15:16, 35

15:16-18, 35

15:17, 297

16:1-4, 209

16:2, 208

16:5-7, 208

16:7, 208

17:2, 78

17:16, 274

18, 60

18:11, 152

18:23, 345-346

19, 60

19:5, 133, 170

19:9, 57

20:7, 119

20:10, 283

21:1-10, 207

21:1123:7, 145

21:1123:8, 97

21:14, 182

22:10-19, 160

22:1023:6, 159

22:11-12, 160

22:13-17, 145, 237

22:16, 134

22:24-28, 28

22:24-30, 160

23:1-6, 161

23:1-22, 105

23:6, 145

23:9-40, 113

23:14, 45, 113

23:18, 108

23:21, 108

24:1, 28

24:7, 119

24:9, 119

25:9, 176, 178

25:15-29, 198

26:2-3, 246

26:6, 88

Page 407

26:12, 94

26:24, 79

27-28, 60, 89

27-29, 28

27:1-11, 220

27:6, 178, 246, 249

27:8, 224

28-29, 58

28, 45, 206

28:1-4, 126

28:2-4, 108

28:8, 98

28:15-17, 119

28:17, 86

29, 44, 55, 93, 125

29:1-9, 207

29:3, 79

29:4-9, 157

29:6-7, 30

29:7, 143

29:8-32, 206

29:15-23, 45

29:21-22, 108

30:10, 238, 277

30:22, 119

31-33, 54, 119

31:1, 119

31:2-6, 54

31:3, 168

31:19, 179

31:21, 180

31:22, 237

31:29-30, 149

31:33, 294-295

31:34, 152

32, 60

32:35, 133, 170

32:38, 119

33:1, 97

33:13, 172

34:8-17, 348

34:8-22, 143

34:16, 174

36, 35

36:10, 328

36:10-12, 79

37:5, 249

37:5-10, 143

37:6-10, 95

39:1-10, 94

39:2, 266

41-44, 267

43:7, 245

43:7-9, 248

43:8-13, 245

43:10, 178

44:1, 245, 248

46:14, 248

46:19, 93, 248

46:25, 248

46:27, 238

47:1-7, 219

47:2, 231

48:17, 70

48:37-38, 55

49:7-22, 218

49:8, 230

49:23-27, 230

49:28-29, 217

49:28-30, 230

49:36, 298

51, 183

51:34, 244

51:59-64, 101

52:28-29, 125

Lamentations

1:3, 217

2:1, 333

2:2, 217

2:4, 208

2:7, 217

2:10, 231

2:15, 65

3:34-36, 258

Ezekiel

13:10, 113

14:7, 117

Daniel

2:4, 28

2:35, 327

3, 14

4, 250

4:12, 250

4:27, 134

4:29, 240

5:24-28, 345

6, 14

7, 73

7:1-8, 259

7:2, 298

7:2-12, 250

7:7, 65

7:10, 81

7:11-14, 259

7:13, 32, 381

7:15-16, 94

7:19, 65

8:8, 298

8:25, 251

9:3-19, 165

10:4, 28

10:5, 81

10:5-6, 327

10:10, 29

11:4, 298

11:12, 251

11:36, 240, 251

11:41, 167

12:1, 81

12:1-2, 300-301

12:6-7, 81

Hosea

1, 209

1-3, 194

1:4, 170, 282

1:8, 36

1:10, 119

2, 65

2:11, 348

2:13, 64, 188

2:14, 143

2:14-15, 168

2:14-20, 132

2:14-23, 284

2:15, 199

2:23, 36, 119

3:1, 132, 168, 209

4:1-3, 117, 153

4:4-6, 189

4:6, 342

5:13, 133, 196, 199

5:136:6, 195

6:4-6, 73

6:5, 98

7:14, 80

8:9, 194

9:8, 46, 264, 268

11:1, 135, 199

Page 408

11:8-9, 64, 209, 283

11:9, 316

12:7, 345

12:13-14, 199

13:4, 199

13:10, 161

13:10-14, 163

14:1-8, 199

14:3, 199

14:4, 200

Joel

2:1-11, 247

2:17, 80

2:20, 350

2:28-32, 114

2:30, 253

3:4-8, 226

3:6-8, 231

3:18, 351

Amos

1, 134

1:3-5, 230

1:6-8, 219

1:9, 231

1:9-10, 226

1:11-12, 230

2:1-3, 218

2:6-8, 117

2:7, 174

3:6, 170

3:9, 57

5:1-2, 162

5:18-20, 68, 70

5:25-26, 65

6:4-7, 378

7:2, 83

7:5, 83

7:8, 29

7:10-12, 97

7:11, 246

8:1-2, 29, 68

8:1-3, 69, 73

8:5, 169, 345, 348

8:11-12, 121

Obadiah

1:15-16, 73

Jonah

1:3, 230

3:104:2, 265

4:2, 246

Micah

2:11, 112

3, 189

3:1-3, 206

3:1-8, 378

3:5, 111-112

3:7, 208

3:8, 112

3:11, 342

4:4, 238, 277

6:11, 345

Nahum

2:2, 124, 127

2:13a, 57

3:5, 134

3:8, 248

3:9, 315

Habakkuk

1:13-17, 258

1:15-16, 253

1:15-17, 95

3:1-16, 300

Zephaniah

1:14-18, 73

2:1-7, 219

Zechariah

2:1-5, 327

2:6, 298

4:6, 173, 299, 324

7:14, 282

8:3, 353

9:2, 238

9:2-4, 226

9:5-8, 219

12:11, 79

13:9, 188

14:8, 351

Malachi

1, 149

1:2-5, 218

1:12, 174

2:6-7, 342

3:2-3, 188

Apochrypha

2 Esdras

2:39, 379

2:45, 379

Tobit

3:16, 379

12:12, 379

16, 379

1 Maccabees

4:52-59, 384

8, 218

12:1-4, 218

14:16-24, 218

15:15-24, 218

2 Maccabees

6:2, 327

9, 240

New Testament

Matthew

1:21, 304

2:2, 144

3, 384

3:2, 70

4:1-11, 321

4:8-10, 146

4:17, 70

4:21, 223

5:5, 294-295

5:13, 128

6:1-4, 286

6:9, 175

6:9-13, 361

6:24, 67, 383

6:33, 66

7:1-2, 182

7:15, 113

7:24, 122

7:24-27, 107

9:17, 128

11:4-5, 278

11:20-24, 36

11:21-22, 226, 238

13:31-32, 350

13:32, 144

Page 409

15:21, 226

18:15-20, 12, 361

18:20, 138

18:23-35, 155

21:1-24, 38

21:23, 38

21:24-26, 39

22:36-40, 187

22:37-40, 153

22:39, 150

22:40, 97

23:34-37, 85

24:11, 113

24:24, 113

24:38, 72

25:31-46, 220, 227

26:4-5, 85

26:28, 291

26:52, 183, 283

26:64, 259, 381

27:25, 154

28:18, 361

28:19, 175, 232

Mark

2:25-26, 331

3:5, 291

3:8, 226

4:30-32, 250

4:32, 250

4:35-41, 251

6:52, 291

7:11, 343

7:24-30, 226

8:17, 291

8:18, 92

8:29-30, 278

8:29-33, 146

8:31, 278

8:34, 82

9:2-6, 98

10:19, 150, 153

10:42-44, 279

10:42-45, 22, 146, 179, 241, 278, 307

10:45, 35, 54, 280, 346

11:28, 38

13:22, 113

13:26, 32, 381

14:24, 291

14:32-35, 347

14:61-62, 278

14:61-65, 146

14:62, 32, 278, 381

17:1-24, 278

Luke

1:51-53, 181

2:12, 131

4:5-8, 146

4:16-30, 383

4:18-19, 59, 348

4:23, 102

4:28-30, 59

6:17, 226

9:58, 32, 381

10:13-14, 226

15:4, 172

16:16, 97

20:2, 38

22:20, 291

23:34, 154

John

1:1, 42, 381

1:14, 35, 42

1:29, 384

2:19-22, 361

3:14, 191

3:16, 175, 290

6:1-15, 384

6:15, 146

7, 347, 384

7:17, 122

8:39, 267

10, 307

10:1-30, 277

10:21-42, 278

10:22-39, 384

10:24, 278

10:25, 278

10:25-27, 278

10:30, 278

14:2, 286

15, 123, 127

15:2, 124

15:6, 125, 127

17:2, 308

17:9, 308

17:11, 308

17:20, 308-309

17:20-23, 308

17:20-26, 306

17:21, 308-309

17:22, 308

18:10-11, 95

18:11, 183

19, 146

Acts

2, 384

2:9-11, 232

2:17, 33

2:17-18, 114

2:17-21, 73

2:19-20, 247, 253

2:32, 299

2:36, 146

2:42, 309

2:42-47, 308

3:1, 348

4:1-4, 299

4:12, 147

5:1-11, 82, 86, 119

7, 165

7:2-53, 135

7:55-56, 27

7:56, 32, 381

8:30-35, 59

8:34, 54

8:34-35, 98

9:2, 151

10:14, 55

10:36, 233, 279, 383

10:37-40, 383

10:38-53, 233

12:20-23, 240

13:14-52, 383

13:16-25, 135

16:13, 28

19:23, 151

21:1, 230

28:23-30, 232

Romans

5:8, 283, 346

8:23, 74

8:33-35, 191

9-11, 135

12:1, 173, 384

12:2, 221

Page 410

12:17-19, 218

12:19, 82, 215

13, 163, 256

13:1-7, 196

1 Corinthians

1:8, 73

1:18-21, 298

2:2, 203

2:8, 379

3:16-17, 361

5:6-8, 384

10:11, 73

10:16, 126

11:25, 126, 154, 280, 291, 294

13, 182

15:20-23, 301

15:56, 43

2 Corinthians

1:14, 73

3:3, 291

3:44:6, 379

3:6, 291

5:1, 64

5:17, 73

8:13-15, 377

8:15, 275

Galatians

1:17, 230

4:25, 230

5:22-23, 259

6:7, 283

Ephesians

1:19-23, 259

2:13-22, 279

2:19-21, 286

2:20-21, 361

4, 306

6:17, 183

Philippians

1:6, 73, 175

2:6-8, 241

Colossians

1:16, 236

2:9, 236

2:13-15, 59

2:15, 133, 240, 251, 259, 301

1 Thessalonians

5:2, 73

2 Thessalonians

2:1-2, 73

Hebrews

2:1-3, 191

2:3, 33

3:8, 291

3:12, 291

4:12, 183

7:25, 191

8:5, 336

8:8, 291

8:13, 291

9:12, 60

9:15, 291

10:19-25, 347

10:25-31, 347

10:30, 218

11:7, 120

11:8-16, 286

12:24, 207, 291

21:1-5, 182

32:22, 254

32:24, 254

32:26, 254

32:29, 254

32:30, 254

James

1:27, 90

1 Peter

1:15-17, 286

2:9-11, 286

2:24, 54

3:20, 120

4:17, 18, 82

5:1-4, 277

5:2-4, 280

2 Peter

2:1, 113

2:22, 102

3:9, 152, 266

3:10, 73

1 John

4:1, 113

2 John

10, 309

Revelation

1:9-11, 383

1:13, 32, 381

2-3, 336

2:7, 331

4:1, 29

4:1-8, 27

4:6-9, 30, 331

5, 81

5:1, 29

5:6-10, 384

6:1, 29

6:2-8, 120

6:9-10, 207

6:10, 218

7:1, 29

8:2, 81

8:6, 81

11:1, 327

13, 256, 259

13:1, 251

13:10, 183

14:14-15, 381

17-18, 240

17:14, 223

19:14, 81

19:16, 223

19:20, 113

20:1-10, 337

20:7-10, 317

20:8, 314-315

20:10, 113

20:12, 81

21:1-4, 72

21:9-27, 89, 335-336

21:10, 336

21:12, 292

21:15-17, 327

21:22, 361

22:1-2, 351

22:2, 331

22:11, 191

22:14, 331

Page 411

Pseudepigrapha

1 Enoch

14:20, 379

2 Enoch

22:8-10, 379

T. Levi

3:4, 379

Other Ancient Sources

ANEP

(see Bibliography)

no. 298, 160

no. 307, 160

no. 368-369, 181

nos. 371-373, 201

no. 373, 181

ANET

(see Bibliography)

4-6, 239

60-72, 239

66, 31, 95

67, 253

84, 79

101-103, 237

102, 79

129-142, 324

129ff., 78

151, 120

159, 305

163-164, 337

164, 39, 145

164-165, 154, 277

175, 155

177-180, 154

199-206, 142

204, 58

265, 235

265-266, 136

268-271, 337

287-288, 255

288, 201

289, 274

289-301, 196

300, 160

307-311, 223

308, 28, 160

320, 217

374, 244

446, 235

446-447, 39

482, 107

486, 120

492, 79

531-541, 142

564, 377

660, 95

Josephus

Against Apion

2.17, 164

Luckenbill

(see Bibliography)

23, 257, 274

26-27, 258

32-33, 181, 201

33, 255

40, 161

47, 179

51, 315

135-143, 337

140-142, 37

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